The Norse Constellations
By Jonas Persson
jonas.persson @ physics.org
http://www.digitaliseducation.com/resources-norse.html
Most people have some knowledge of the Greek mythology and that the western constellations come from them. As a Scandinavian it is natural to think about the Norse mythology and constellations. This is an attempt to shed some light on the Norse constellations.
One thing to remember is that we do not know a lot of the names and constellations they used. Despite a rich oral and written tradition, very little has been preserved, which is why the material is meagre. There are two major problems: the use of Latin and Greek/Roman names during the medieval period, and the Romanticism in the19th century, where “new” names and tradition arose. Even today the ”New Age” movement invents new names and traditions. It is therefore important to look for reliable (?) sources.
Our main source of Norse mythology comes from the Eddas, the poetic Edda and prosaic (Snorre Sturlason’s) Edda. But there exist other sources with surprisingly few references to the sky, considering the mastery of the Norse navigation and seamanship; this indicates a fair knowledge of astronomy for navigation.
Observations of the stars and the sun are important for navigation, but also as a way of telling time. Local landmarks are used in combination with observations to tell the time. But one notices that the Vikings were aware of the difference of “sun-time” and “star-time”. The existence of a Norse calendar is mentioned in the Icelandic chronicle “Íslendingabók”, where a calendar reform around AD955. A calendar used from the 8th century till the 12th century, when the Julian calendar where introduced. It is likely that the Icelandic calendar where based on astronomical observations.
We find in the Icelandic literature a man, Odd Helgason, ”Star-Oddi”, who had a reputation as a skillful astronomer. A text supposedly originating from him includes the winter- and summer solstices [1]. The text shows his astronomical skills, which shows a tradition for astronomical observations, something that lost its importance with an increased literacy and an increased number of foreign and Icelandic books. Here we find an encyclopaedic text on Astronomy which has survived [2].
Stars and constellations in the Eddas
In Völuspa the origin of the stars and planets are mentioned, as well as their end at Ragnarök. The world was created from the body of the giant Ymer. His skull forms the firmament and is held in place by four dwarves, where sparks from Muspellheim form the stars. Their place in the sky was determined by the gods and some were given paths they will roam.
In prosaic Edda, which is a textbook on writing poetry, we find more stories where stars are mentioned. As in the Greek mythology, stories explain how they ended up in the sky.
In Skáldskaparmál, the story of Tjatse is told. Tjatse managed, with the assistance of Loki, to kidnap Idun, the keeper of the apples of youth, from Asgard. Loki managed to save her but was pursued by Tjatse, who got killed. Tjatse's daughter Skade came and demanded compensation for her father. The compensation included among other things a husband. In addition Odin or Thor placed Tjatse's eyes in the sky; we do not know which stars they are.
The other story where a star or constellation is mentioned is in the epilogue of the fight between Thor and the giant Hrungne. Thor was injured in the fight, and a small piece of stone got stuck in his head. In order to get it out, he sought help from a Vala, a type of oracle, named Groa. When Thor felt that the stone were coming out, he told Groa that he helped her husband Aurvandil, to escape from the land of the giants. During the escape Aurvandil froze his big toe, which Thor broke off and threw into the sky to become a star or a constellation, Aurvandil's toe. This made Groa so happy that she forgot her magic, and Thor still has that piece of stone in his head.
There exist a number of possible candidates of “Aurvandils toe.” Rigel is one possibility, as “Orion” is associated with Thor in other myths. Richard Allen [3] identifies ”Orwandil”1 as the Norse name of Orion, and Rigel as one of ”Orwandil's” toes. According to Allen, the broken-off toe is Alcor, since he was riding in Thor's chariot (Man's chariot, i.e. The Big Dipper). But this is hardly the case as Orwandil was carried on Thor's back according to the myth.
”Aurvandil's toe” might also be Corona Borealis, partly because of the likeness with a toe. But there are also other indications making this identification the most likely. Corona Borealis is a spring constellation, which is of importance. In ”Gesta danorum" written by Saxo Grammaticus [4], one finds a story of a King, Horwendil, who is fighting a duel with a Norwegian king, Koller (cold). The duel ends with Horwendil cutting off Koller's foot and thus killing him. This story is probably based on an old myth of the fight between seasons, making Koller's foot or “Aurvandil's toe” a sign of spring or summers victory over the cold winter.
There is another interesting object in the Eddas, Bifrost, often identified as the name of the rainbow or the Milky Way. There are these two interpretations. In the north-western European tradition the rainbow is the road of the dead. This road is in Norse mythology called the road to Hel, the realm of the dead. But the rainbow is also the road to the “other” world. The name Bifrost originates from two words, bif, the shimmering, the trembling, or the multi coloured, and rost, road. In the poetic Edda, Bifrost is described as the shimmering road and as the road to Asgard, something that is inconsistent with the rainbow.
Rudolf Simek [5] identifies Bifrost as the rainbow, while Jan de Vries [6] concentrates on the notion of the shimmering road, thus identifying Bifrost as the Milky Way. There is other circumstantial evidence: Heimdall, the guardian of Bifrost, lives in a house ”high up in the sky.” In Arctic and Subarctic cultures, the Milky Way is the road to the world of the dead. The dark period of the year is also the time when the dark forces and the dead are closer to our world, but during this period rainbows are very rare when the Milky Way is visible. So Bifrost is probably a mix; during the day it is the rainbow, while being the Milky Way at night, an indication of influences from different cultures.
Stars in encyclopaedic literature
The literature that survived originates from 1150-1400, which is why it is possible that it has been influenced by continental material. This is indicated by the use of names that are more or less direct translations of the Latin names. The author must have known the old Norse names but used the Latin names instead.
Constellations
In Beckman and Kålund’s compilation [7] of Rimtöl (rhymes of time ( or timetelling)) they present five constellations that appear to have the old norse names:
"Ulf's Keptr," Mouth of the Wolf, Hyades
”Fiskikarlar,” Fishermen, Orion’s belt
”Kvennavagn,” Woman's chariot; Ursa Minor
”Karlvagn,” Man's chariot; The big dipper
”Asar Bardagi,” The Asar Battlefield, Auriga
The Mouth of the Wolf ("Ulf's Keptr"), the Hyades, resembles a wolf's mouth. In Norse mythology there are two wolves hunting the sun and the moon. The mouth of the wolf is close to the ecliptic, and it can be interpreted as one of these wolves. An alternative explanation is that it symbolises the Fenrir Wolf, whose mouth is held open with a sword, The milky way is then formed by the foam from his mouth. But this is not supported by the myth, as Fenrir was chained underground. If the Milky Way is the road to Hel, the wolf could be Garm, who is guarding the entrance to Hel.
Gislason [8] mentions a second Mouth of the wolf, in the vicinity of Andromeda, this might be stars in Pieces, as they are close to the ecliptic. However the two wolves in the sky can be interpreted as one running in front of the sun and one after. This might be the origin of the word Sundog, parhelia. The Danish name is a direct translation of the English or rather vice versa.
Orion is a well known constellation, and there are a number of names for Orion's belt of Norse origin. Beckman and Kålunds [7] use “Fiskikarlar,” the fishermen. Another name is “Friggs distaff.” These names seem to be used locally; the fishermen are used in Norway and Iceland, while Friggs distaff is used in Sweden.
One of the most well known constellations is The Big Dipper, the Plogh or Charles’ wain, which in the Nordic countries are called ”Karlavagnen”, the chariot of Karl or man. The wagon is easily identified, but the origin of the name is a source for discussion. One theory is that it is named after Charlemagne (Karl in Scandinavia) and of medieval origin. But if we look at the older Norse name, we find “Karlsvagn” (Man’s Chariot) but also ”Kvennavagn” (Woman’s Chariot) as the name of Ursa Minor. This might indicate a connection between the constellations, and the fact that the names are much older, with a possibility that specific names have been used during different periods in history. This means that Thor might be the Man and Freya the woman, both travelling by chariots according to the myths. We also might have a connection with the Nerthus cult, described by Roman authors.
One constellation which has a peculiar name is Auriga, which is called ”asar bardagi”. The battlefield or the fight of the asar. Beckman and Kålund interpret this name as Thor’s Fight, probably based on the Greek name. But asar is plural, so it might indicate the final battle for all asar, that is Ragnarök. The neighbouring constellations are equally horrifying, with The Mouth of The Wolf, and the Milky Way as The Road of the Dead, in the vicinity.
Stars
Among the stars three have special names:
Arcturus; Dagstjarna, Day star.
Polaris; Leidarstjarna, Guiding star
Vega; Sudrstjarna, South star
Vega is visible in the southern sky during summer and in south at midnight during summer solstice.
Polaris is always in the north and was probably used for navigation, hence its name.
But why call a star Day star? (The Finnish name for Arcturus is “Aurinkontähti”, sunstar) we know that the sun does not follow star time, why there shouldn’t exist a specific star that following the sunrise. But at the latitudes of Scandinavia, especially around the Arctic Circle, the sunrise follows star time during the first months of the year. So an intense star visible before sunrise during late winter and spring will indicate that the sun is coming and be referred to as the day star, Arcturus.
We also find an indication of a star in folklore, especially in a popular Swedish Christmas song, with medieval origin. The interesting lines go like this:
Det är väl ingen dager än,
Fast Eder tyckes så,
Det är den ljusa stjärnan
Som för dagen plägar gå.
“There is no sign of dawn
Even if it seems to be
It is the shining star
Promising the day to come”
This song is sung around Christmas, when Arcturus is in the right position. Arcturus is also called Day Star in some parts of Norway today.
Conclusions
The Norse societies had a considerable knowledge of astronomy and quite possibly their own constellations and names of stars. These names have been lost, apart from some fragments from written sources and within the folklore. The literature was probably written down by persons who had some kind of education, including in astronomy, which is why they used the Latin names. But the small fragments that exist give a picture of this lost culture that might increase when more notes are found in the Icelandic archives.
References:
Roslund Curt, Stjärn-Oddi: En vikingatida astronom på Island, Astronomisk årsbok, s 28, 1984 (in Swedish)
Beckman, N. and Kålund, Kr. (1914-16). Alfræði íslenzk: Islandsk encyklo-pædisk litteratur: II. Rímtöl [Encyclopaedic literature on the calendar]. s 48-53 (in Swedish).
Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names; Their lore and meaning
Saxo Grammaticus, ”Gesta danorum" (In Latin)
Rudolf Simek, The Dictionary of Northen Mythology
Jan de Vries, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte (in German)
Beckman, N. and Kålund, Kr. (1914-16). Alfræði íslenzk: Islandsk encyklo-pædisk litteratur: II. Rímtöl [Encyclopaedic literature on the calendar]. s 72. (in Swedish)
Gislason, K. Fire og fyrretyve for en stor Deel forhen utrykte Prøver af oldnordisk Sprog og Litteratur. (København: Gyldendalska bogh. 1860) (in Danish)
1 Aurvandil, Orwandil, Horwandil and Erendil are different forms of the same name.
jonas.persson @ physics.org
http://www.digitaliseducation.com/resources-norse.html
Most people have some knowledge of the Greek mythology and that the western constellations come from them. As a Scandinavian it is natural to think about the Norse mythology and constellations. This is an attempt to shed some light on the Norse constellations.
One thing to remember is that we do not know a lot of the names and constellations they used. Despite a rich oral and written tradition, very little has been preserved, which is why the material is meagre. There are two major problems: the use of Latin and Greek/Roman names during the medieval period, and the Romanticism in the19th century, where “new” names and tradition arose. Even today the ”New Age” movement invents new names and traditions. It is therefore important to look for reliable (?) sources.
Our main source of Norse mythology comes from the Eddas, the poetic Edda and prosaic (Snorre Sturlason’s) Edda. But there exist other sources with surprisingly few references to the sky, considering the mastery of the Norse navigation and seamanship; this indicates a fair knowledge of astronomy for navigation.
Observations of the stars and the sun are important for navigation, but also as a way of telling time. Local landmarks are used in combination with observations to tell the time. But one notices that the Vikings were aware of the difference of “sun-time” and “star-time”. The existence of a Norse calendar is mentioned in the Icelandic chronicle “Íslendingabók”, where a calendar reform around AD955. A calendar used from the 8th century till the 12th century, when the Julian calendar where introduced. It is likely that the Icelandic calendar where based on astronomical observations.
We find in the Icelandic literature a man, Odd Helgason, ”Star-Oddi”, who had a reputation as a skillful astronomer. A text supposedly originating from him includes the winter- and summer solstices [1]. The text shows his astronomical skills, which shows a tradition for astronomical observations, something that lost its importance with an increased literacy and an increased number of foreign and Icelandic books. Here we find an encyclopaedic text on Astronomy which has survived [2].
Stars and constellations in the Eddas
In Völuspa the origin of the stars and planets are mentioned, as well as their end at Ragnarök. The world was created from the body of the giant Ymer. His skull forms the firmament and is held in place by four dwarves, where sparks from Muspellheim form the stars. Their place in the sky was determined by the gods and some were given paths they will roam.
In prosaic Edda, which is a textbook on writing poetry, we find more stories where stars are mentioned. As in the Greek mythology, stories explain how they ended up in the sky.
In Skáldskaparmál, the story of Tjatse is told. Tjatse managed, with the assistance of Loki, to kidnap Idun, the keeper of the apples of youth, from Asgard. Loki managed to save her but was pursued by Tjatse, who got killed. Tjatse's daughter Skade came and demanded compensation for her father. The compensation included among other things a husband. In addition Odin or Thor placed Tjatse's eyes in the sky; we do not know which stars they are.
The other story where a star or constellation is mentioned is in the epilogue of the fight between Thor and the giant Hrungne. Thor was injured in the fight, and a small piece of stone got stuck in his head. In order to get it out, he sought help from a Vala, a type of oracle, named Groa. When Thor felt that the stone were coming out, he told Groa that he helped her husband Aurvandil, to escape from the land of the giants. During the escape Aurvandil froze his big toe, which Thor broke off and threw into the sky to become a star or a constellation, Aurvandil's toe. This made Groa so happy that she forgot her magic, and Thor still has that piece of stone in his head.
There exist a number of possible candidates of “Aurvandils toe.” Rigel is one possibility, as “Orion” is associated with Thor in other myths. Richard Allen [3] identifies ”Orwandil”1 as the Norse name of Orion, and Rigel as one of ”Orwandil's” toes. According to Allen, the broken-off toe is Alcor, since he was riding in Thor's chariot (Man's chariot, i.e. The Big Dipper). But this is hardly the case as Orwandil was carried on Thor's back according to the myth.
”Aurvandil's toe” might also be Corona Borealis, partly because of the likeness with a toe. But there are also other indications making this identification the most likely. Corona Borealis is a spring constellation, which is of importance. In ”Gesta danorum" written by Saxo Grammaticus [4], one finds a story of a King, Horwendil, who is fighting a duel with a Norwegian king, Koller (cold). The duel ends with Horwendil cutting off Koller's foot and thus killing him. This story is probably based on an old myth of the fight between seasons, making Koller's foot or “Aurvandil's toe” a sign of spring or summers victory over the cold winter.
There is another interesting object in the Eddas, Bifrost, often identified as the name of the rainbow or the Milky Way. There are these two interpretations. In the north-western European tradition the rainbow is the road of the dead. This road is in Norse mythology called the road to Hel, the realm of the dead. But the rainbow is also the road to the “other” world. The name Bifrost originates from two words, bif, the shimmering, the trembling, or the multi coloured, and rost, road. In the poetic Edda, Bifrost is described as the shimmering road and as the road to Asgard, something that is inconsistent with the rainbow.
Rudolf Simek [5] identifies Bifrost as the rainbow, while Jan de Vries [6] concentrates on the notion of the shimmering road, thus identifying Bifrost as the Milky Way. There is other circumstantial evidence: Heimdall, the guardian of Bifrost, lives in a house ”high up in the sky.” In Arctic and Subarctic cultures, the Milky Way is the road to the world of the dead. The dark period of the year is also the time when the dark forces and the dead are closer to our world, but during this period rainbows are very rare when the Milky Way is visible. So Bifrost is probably a mix; during the day it is the rainbow, while being the Milky Way at night, an indication of influences from different cultures.
Stars in encyclopaedic literature
The literature that survived originates from 1150-1400, which is why it is possible that it has been influenced by continental material. This is indicated by the use of names that are more or less direct translations of the Latin names. The author must have known the old Norse names but used the Latin names instead.
Constellations
In Beckman and Kålund’s compilation [7] of Rimtöl (rhymes of time ( or timetelling)) they present five constellations that appear to have the old norse names:
"Ulf's Keptr," Mouth of the Wolf, Hyades
”Fiskikarlar,” Fishermen, Orion’s belt
”Kvennavagn,” Woman's chariot; Ursa Minor
”Karlvagn,” Man's chariot; The big dipper
”Asar Bardagi,” The Asar Battlefield, Auriga
The Mouth of the Wolf ("Ulf's Keptr"), the Hyades, resembles a wolf's mouth. In Norse mythology there are two wolves hunting the sun and the moon. The mouth of the wolf is close to the ecliptic, and it can be interpreted as one of these wolves. An alternative explanation is that it symbolises the Fenrir Wolf, whose mouth is held open with a sword, The milky way is then formed by the foam from his mouth. But this is not supported by the myth, as Fenrir was chained underground. If the Milky Way is the road to Hel, the wolf could be Garm, who is guarding the entrance to Hel.
Gislason [8] mentions a second Mouth of the wolf, in the vicinity of Andromeda, this might be stars in Pieces, as they are close to the ecliptic. However the two wolves in the sky can be interpreted as one running in front of the sun and one after. This might be the origin of the word Sundog, parhelia. The Danish name is a direct translation of the English or rather vice versa.
Orion is a well known constellation, and there are a number of names for Orion's belt of Norse origin. Beckman and Kålunds [7] use “Fiskikarlar,” the fishermen. Another name is “Friggs distaff.” These names seem to be used locally; the fishermen are used in Norway and Iceland, while Friggs distaff is used in Sweden.
One of the most well known constellations is The Big Dipper, the Plogh or Charles’ wain, which in the Nordic countries are called ”Karlavagnen”, the chariot of Karl or man. The wagon is easily identified, but the origin of the name is a source for discussion. One theory is that it is named after Charlemagne (Karl in Scandinavia) and of medieval origin. But if we look at the older Norse name, we find “Karlsvagn” (Man’s Chariot) but also ”Kvennavagn” (Woman’s Chariot) as the name of Ursa Minor. This might indicate a connection between the constellations, and the fact that the names are much older, with a possibility that specific names have been used during different periods in history. This means that Thor might be the Man and Freya the woman, both travelling by chariots according to the myths. We also might have a connection with the Nerthus cult, described by Roman authors.
One constellation which has a peculiar name is Auriga, which is called ”asar bardagi”. The battlefield or the fight of the asar. Beckman and Kålund interpret this name as Thor’s Fight, probably based on the Greek name. But asar is plural, so it might indicate the final battle for all asar, that is Ragnarök. The neighbouring constellations are equally horrifying, with The Mouth of The Wolf, and the Milky Way as The Road of the Dead, in the vicinity.
Stars
Among the stars three have special names:
Arcturus; Dagstjarna, Day star.
Polaris; Leidarstjarna, Guiding star
Vega; Sudrstjarna, South star
Vega is visible in the southern sky during summer and in south at midnight during summer solstice.
Polaris is always in the north and was probably used for navigation, hence its name.
But why call a star Day star? (The Finnish name for Arcturus is “Aurinkontähti”, sunstar) we know that the sun does not follow star time, why there shouldn’t exist a specific star that following the sunrise. But at the latitudes of Scandinavia, especially around the Arctic Circle, the sunrise follows star time during the first months of the year. So an intense star visible before sunrise during late winter and spring will indicate that the sun is coming and be referred to as the day star, Arcturus.
We also find an indication of a star in folklore, especially in a popular Swedish Christmas song, with medieval origin. The interesting lines go like this:
Det är väl ingen dager än,
Fast Eder tyckes så,
Det är den ljusa stjärnan
Som för dagen plägar gå.
“There is no sign of dawn
Even if it seems to be
It is the shining star
Promising the day to come”
This song is sung around Christmas, when Arcturus is in the right position. Arcturus is also called Day Star in some parts of Norway today.
Conclusions
The Norse societies had a considerable knowledge of astronomy and quite possibly their own constellations and names of stars. These names have been lost, apart from some fragments from written sources and within the folklore. The literature was probably written down by persons who had some kind of education, including in astronomy, which is why they used the Latin names. But the small fragments that exist give a picture of this lost culture that might increase when more notes are found in the Icelandic archives.
References:
Roslund Curt, Stjärn-Oddi: En vikingatida astronom på Island, Astronomisk årsbok, s 28, 1984 (in Swedish)
Beckman, N. and Kålund, Kr. (1914-16). Alfræði íslenzk: Islandsk encyklo-pædisk litteratur: II. Rímtöl [Encyclopaedic literature on the calendar]. s 48-53 (in Swedish).
Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names; Their lore and meaning
Saxo Grammaticus, ”Gesta danorum" (In Latin)
Rudolf Simek, The Dictionary of Northen Mythology
Jan de Vries, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte (in German)
Beckman, N. and Kålund, Kr. (1914-16). Alfræði íslenzk: Islandsk encyklo-pædisk litteratur: II. Rímtöl [Encyclopaedic literature on the calendar]. s 72. (in Swedish)
Gislason, K. Fire og fyrretyve for en stor Deel forhen utrykte Prøver af oldnordisk Sprog og Litteratur. (København: Gyldendalska bogh. 1860) (in Danish)
1 Aurvandil, Orwandil, Horwandil and Erendil are different forms of the same name.
Saga of the Greenlanders
http://www.canadianmysteries.ca/sites/vinland/whereisvinland/sagaof...
"The Saga of the Greenlanders" was recorded in Iceland towards the end of the 14th century by an anonymous scribe. It tells of the accidental discovery of hitherto unknown lands south and west of Greenland. The discovery was made in 985 or 986, the same year that Greenland was settled, by a crew on an Icelandic merchant ship en route from Iceland to Greenland. The ship was owned by an Icelander, Bjarni Herjolfsson. Returning to his home in Iceland from a trading voyage to Norway, he found that his father had emigrated to Greenland with Erik the Red. Undaunted, he set out for Greenland, despite lacking familiarity with the route and the fact that it was late in the season. Rounding the southern tip of Greenland, now called Cape Farewell, they were hit by a storm and tossed unmercifully on the sea for some time. When the weather cleared, they sighted land. Realizing that he was too far south for this land to be Greenland and that the landmarks did not correspond to what he had heard of Greenland, Bjarni set course first northward, then east, and eventually made his way to his father’s place in Greenland in time to spend the winter there.
Word of Bjarni’s discovery spread fast. People were interested in finding out more about this new land, but it was not until fifteen years later that anyone did anything about it. The first to launch an expedition was Leif, son of the paramount chief of Greenland, Erik (Eirik) the Red. Retracing Bjarni’s route in the opposite direction, Leif created the names Helluland, Markland, and Vinland for three regions with distinct characteristics first observed by Bjarni. They established a base in Vinland and called it Leifsbúðir, Leif’s Camp. From there they explored in several directions and discovered wild grapes for which Leif named the area.
The second expedition was headed by Leif’s brother Thorvald. The first summer Thorvald and his crew explored the area west of Leifsbúðir. They were out all summer without seeing any sign of people except a shelter which looked like a drying rack or storage structure for hay. The next summer they investigated the area north or east of the base. One day they came upon nine people sleeping under overturned hide-covered boats. They killed all but one. The next morning they were attacked by a large group of people shooting arrows. Thorvald died. In his dying moments he instructed his comrades to bury him there and erect crosses at his head and feet. After this the crew returned to Leifsbúðir to spend the rest of the winter there. In the spring they returned to Greenland.
The next expedition was arranged by another of Leif’s brothers, Thorsten. Thorsten was married to Gudrid, who figures prominently in all the Vinland sagas. Thorsten’s chief goal was to retrieve Thorvald’s body for reburial in Greenland, presumably in the cemetery at Brattahlid. Thorsten’s expedition never reached any of the new lands. The ship got caught up in a storm and was tossed on the open sea all summer, finding its way back to Greenland only in the first week of winter [in the Norse calendar summer ended and winter began in mid-October]. Thorsten died that winter.
The third expedition was led by the Icelander Thorfinn Karlsefni, who had married Thorsten’s widow Gudrid. Gudrid accompanied him on the voyage. Karlsefni and Gudrid’s stay in Vinland lasted two years, and their son, Snorri, was born there. This expedition ran into conflict with large groups of native inhabitants. They felt outnumbered and unsafe and returned home.
The fourth expedition was led by Leif’s sister Freydis and her husband Thorvard. They made the expedition in partnership with two Icelandic merchants, Helgi and Finnbogi, who had their own vessel and crew. Their agreement was to share equally in the profit. On their arrival in Vinland, however, Freydis informed the Icelanders that they could not use any of Leif’s buildings, so they built their own house a bit away from the existing ones. Over the winter, when everyone was at the camp, Freydis grew restless. Greedy for the goods collected by the Icelanders [probably lumber, fur, and grapes], she enticed her husband and crew to kill all the Icelanders. When her own people refused to kill the five women who were part of the Icelandic group, she grabbed an axe and did it herself.
Freydis’ and Thorvard’s expedition is the last expedition described in the "Saga of the Greenlanders".
Erik the Red’s Saga
"Erik (Eirik) the Red’s Saga" was composed before 1265 in northwestern Iceland. In spite of the name, it deals primarily with Thorfinn Karlsefni and his wife Gudrid, also known from the "Saga of the Greenlanders". It occurs in two written versions. One is Skálholt Book possibly because it was written by a cleric at the Skálholt monastery in southwestern Iceland. The other is Hauk’s Book, penned around the years 1306 to 1308 by the prominent Icelander Hauk Erlendsson who lived from 1265 to 1334. Hauk [the name means ‘hawk’] was a Law Speaker and served as a delegate at the Norwegian court. Hauk was a direct descendant of Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid via their son Snorri. They were in fact his great-great-great-great-great-great-great-grandparents.
A Swedish scholar, Sven B. F. Jansson, has made a word-for-word comparison of the two versions of "Erik the Red’s Saga". His conclusion is that Hauk had edited a manuscript more or less identical to theSkálholt Book. Hauk made notes in the margin and clarified and added to some passages, and he is more specific. For example, where Skalholt Book says ‘birds,’ Hauk’s Book says ‘eider.’ Possibly Hauk was drawing on information preserved within his own family.
Erik the Red’s Saga" tells of the same events as "The Saga of the Greenlanders" but with a twist. Here the expeditions of Leif, Thorvald, Karlsefni and Freydis have been combined into one single expedition led by Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid, where Thorvald and Freydis figure as partners. The size of this expedition is the same as all of those of the "Saga of the Greenlanders" combined. Leif’s role has been reduced to that of accidental discoverer, being blown off course en route from Norway to Greenland.
Only Thorsten’s expedition is given equal treatment. Again we are told that it never reached its goal but was storm-driven all summer before returning to Greenland without ever having seen Vinland.
Instead of the one base establishment, Leifsbúðir, there are two. The main base where everyone spent the winter is Straumfjord, Fjord of Currents. Straumfjord is in northern Vinland. There is also a more southerly base, Hóp, Tidal Lagoon. It is here they harvested grapes and cut lumber. However, here they also came into contact with large groups of native people. After fights ensued, Karlsefni and his group returned to Straumfjord.
In other aspects the events are much the same as those of the "Saga of the Greenlanders". There are explorations in different directions. One group went north but was storm-driven eastwards all the way to Ireland where everyone was enslaved. Exploring in a northerly direction, another group encountered five native people sleeping on the shore, whom they killed. Here Thorvald died from an arrow presumably shot by a native person, although the saga calls him a ‘uniped, or ‘one-footer.’ The survivors returned to Straumfjord for the winter and set sail for Greenland the next spring. They had spent three years in Vinland and Snorri had been born to Karlsefni and Gudrid already the first year.
http://www.canadianmysteries.ca/sites/vinland/whereisvinland/sagaof...
"The Saga of the Greenlanders" was recorded in Iceland towards the end of the 14th century by an anonymous scribe. It tells of the accidental discovery of hitherto unknown lands south and west of Greenland. The discovery was made in 985 or 986, the same year that Greenland was settled, by a crew on an Icelandic merchant ship en route from Iceland to Greenland. The ship was owned by an Icelander, Bjarni Herjolfsson. Returning to his home in Iceland from a trading voyage to Norway, he found that his father had emigrated to Greenland with Erik the Red. Undaunted, he set out for Greenland, despite lacking familiarity with the route and the fact that it was late in the season. Rounding the southern tip of Greenland, now called Cape Farewell, they were hit by a storm and tossed unmercifully on the sea for some time. When the weather cleared, they sighted land. Realizing that he was too far south for this land to be Greenland and that the landmarks did not correspond to what he had heard of Greenland, Bjarni set course first northward, then east, and eventually made his way to his father’s place in Greenland in time to spend the winter there.
Word of Bjarni’s discovery spread fast. People were interested in finding out more about this new land, but it was not until fifteen years later that anyone did anything about it. The first to launch an expedition was Leif, son of the paramount chief of Greenland, Erik (Eirik) the Red. Retracing Bjarni’s route in the opposite direction, Leif created the names Helluland, Markland, and Vinland for three regions with distinct characteristics first observed by Bjarni. They established a base in Vinland and called it Leifsbúðir, Leif’s Camp. From there they explored in several directions and discovered wild grapes for which Leif named the area.
The second expedition was headed by Leif’s brother Thorvald. The first summer Thorvald and his crew explored the area west of Leifsbúðir. They were out all summer without seeing any sign of people except a shelter which looked like a drying rack or storage structure for hay. The next summer they investigated the area north or east of the base. One day they came upon nine people sleeping under overturned hide-covered boats. They killed all but one. The next morning they were attacked by a large group of people shooting arrows. Thorvald died. In his dying moments he instructed his comrades to bury him there and erect crosses at his head and feet. After this the crew returned to Leifsbúðir to spend the rest of the winter there. In the spring they returned to Greenland.
The next expedition was arranged by another of Leif’s brothers, Thorsten. Thorsten was married to Gudrid, who figures prominently in all the Vinland sagas. Thorsten’s chief goal was to retrieve Thorvald’s body for reburial in Greenland, presumably in the cemetery at Brattahlid. Thorsten’s expedition never reached any of the new lands. The ship got caught up in a storm and was tossed on the open sea all summer, finding its way back to Greenland only in the first week of winter [in the Norse calendar summer ended and winter began in mid-October]. Thorsten died that winter.
The third expedition was led by the Icelander Thorfinn Karlsefni, who had married Thorsten’s widow Gudrid. Gudrid accompanied him on the voyage. Karlsefni and Gudrid’s stay in Vinland lasted two years, and their son, Snorri, was born there. This expedition ran into conflict with large groups of native inhabitants. They felt outnumbered and unsafe and returned home.
The fourth expedition was led by Leif’s sister Freydis and her husband Thorvard. They made the expedition in partnership with two Icelandic merchants, Helgi and Finnbogi, who had their own vessel and crew. Their agreement was to share equally in the profit. On their arrival in Vinland, however, Freydis informed the Icelanders that they could not use any of Leif’s buildings, so they built their own house a bit away from the existing ones. Over the winter, when everyone was at the camp, Freydis grew restless. Greedy for the goods collected by the Icelanders [probably lumber, fur, and grapes], she enticed her husband and crew to kill all the Icelanders. When her own people refused to kill the five women who were part of the Icelandic group, she grabbed an axe and did it herself.
Freydis’ and Thorvard’s expedition is the last expedition described in the "Saga of the Greenlanders".
Erik the Red’s Saga
"Erik (Eirik) the Red’s Saga" was composed before 1265 in northwestern Iceland. In spite of the name, it deals primarily with Thorfinn Karlsefni and his wife Gudrid, also known from the "Saga of the Greenlanders". It occurs in two written versions. One is Skálholt Book possibly because it was written by a cleric at the Skálholt monastery in southwestern Iceland. The other is Hauk’s Book, penned around the years 1306 to 1308 by the prominent Icelander Hauk Erlendsson who lived from 1265 to 1334. Hauk [the name means ‘hawk’] was a Law Speaker and served as a delegate at the Norwegian court. Hauk was a direct descendant of Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid via their son Snorri. They were in fact his great-great-great-great-great-great-great-grandparents.
A Swedish scholar, Sven B. F. Jansson, has made a word-for-word comparison of the two versions of "Erik the Red’s Saga". His conclusion is that Hauk had edited a manuscript more or less identical to theSkálholt Book. Hauk made notes in the margin and clarified and added to some passages, and he is more specific. For example, where Skalholt Book says ‘birds,’ Hauk’s Book says ‘eider.’ Possibly Hauk was drawing on information preserved within his own family.
Erik the Red’s Saga" tells of the same events as "The Saga of the Greenlanders" but with a twist. Here the expeditions of Leif, Thorvald, Karlsefni and Freydis have been combined into one single expedition led by Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid, where Thorvald and Freydis figure as partners. The size of this expedition is the same as all of those of the "Saga of the Greenlanders" combined. Leif’s role has been reduced to that of accidental discoverer, being blown off course en route from Norway to Greenland.
Only Thorsten’s expedition is given equal treatment. Again we are told that it never reached its goal but was storm-driven all summer before returning to Greenland without ever having seen Vinland.
Instead of the one base establishment, Leifsbúðir, there are two. The main base where everyone spent the winter is Straumfjord, Fjord of Currents. Straumfjord is in northern Vinland. There is also a more southerly base, Hóp, Tidal Lagoon. It is here they harvested grapes and cut lumber. However, here they also came into contact with large groups of native people. After fights ensued, Karlsefni and his group returned to Straumfjord.
In other aspects the events are much the same as those of the "Saga of the Greenlanders". There are explorations in different directions. One group went north but was storm-driven eastwards all the way to Ireland where everyone was enslaved. Exploring in a northerly direction, another group encountered five native people sleeping on the shore, whom they killed. Here Thorvald died from an arrow presumably shot by a native person, although the saga calls him a ‘uniped, or ‘one-footer.’ The survivors returned to Straumfjord for the winter and set sail for Greenland the next spring. They had spent three years in Vinland and Snorri had been born to Karlsefni and Gudrid already the first year.
Völuspá: The Song of the Völva
(W H Auden & P B Taylor Translation) Heidi men call me when their homes I visit, A far seeing Volva, wise in talismans. Caster of spells, cunning in magic. To wicked women welcome always. Arm rings and necklaces, Odhinn you gave me To learn my lore, to learn my magic: Wider and wider through all worlds I see. Outside I sat by myself when you came, Terror of the gods, and gazed in my eyes. What do you ask of me? Why tempt me? Odhinn, I know where your eye is concealed, Hidden away in the well of Mimir: Mimir each morning his mead drinks From Valfather's pledge. Well would you know more? Of Heimdal too and his horn I know. Hidden under the holy tree Down on it pours a precious stream from Valfather's pledge Well would you know more? Silence I ask of the sacred folk, Silence of the kith and kin of Heimdal: At your will Valfather, I shall well relate The old songs of men I remember best. I tell of giants from times forgotten. Those who fed me in former days: Nine worlds I can reckon, nine roots of the tree. The wonderful ash, way under the ground When Ymir lived long ago Was no sand or sea, no surging waves. Nowhere was there earth nor heaven above. Bur a grinning gap and grass nowhere. The sons of Bur then built up the lands. Moulded in magnificence middle-Earth: Sun stared from the south on the stones of their hall, From the ground there sprouted green leeks. Sun turned from the south, sister of Moon, Her right arm rested on the rim of Heaven; She had no inkling where her hall was, Nor Moon a notion of what might he had, The planets knew not where their places were. The high gods gathered in council In their hall of judgement. all the rulers: To Night and to Nightfall their names gave, The Morning they named and the Mid-Day, Mid-Winter, Mid-Summer, for the assigning of years. At Ida's Field the Aesir met: Temple and altar they timbered and raised, Set up a forge to smithy treasures, Tongs they fashioned and tools wrought; Played chess in the court and cheerful were; Gold they lacked not, the gleaming metal Then came three, the Thurs maidens, Rejoicing in their strength, from Giant-home. The high Gods gathered in council. In their hall of judgement: Who of the dwarves Should mould man by master craft From Brimir's blood and Blain' s limbs? Motsognir was their mighty ruler, Greatest of dwarves, and Durin after him : The dwarves did as Durin directed, Many man forms made from the earth. Nyi and Nidi, Nordri, Sudri, Austri and Vestri, Althjof, Dvalin, Bivor, Bavor Bombur, Nori, An and Anar, Ai, Mjodvitnir, Veignr and Gandalf, Vindalf, Thorin, Thror and Thrain, Thekkur, Litur, Vitur, Nar and Nyradur, Fili, Kili, Fundin, Nali Hefti, Vili, Hanar, Sviur, Billing, Bruni, Bildur, and Buri, Frar, Hornbori Fraegur, Loni, Aurvangur, Jari, Eikinskjaldi: (All Durin's folk I have duly named,) I must tell of the dwarves in Dvalin' s host; Like lions they were in Lofar's time: In Juravale's marsh they made their dwelling, From their Stone hall set out on journeys, There was Draupnir and Dolgthrasir, Har, Haugspori, Hlevangur, Gloi, Dori, Ori, Dufur, Andvari, Skirvir, Virvir Skafidur, Ai, Alf and Yngvi, Eikinskjaldi, Fjalar and Frosti, Finn and Ginnar: Men will remember while men live The long line of Lofar's forbears. Then from the host three came, Great, merciful, from the God's home: Ash and Elm on earth they found, Faint, feeble, with no fate assigned them Breath they had not, nor blood nor senses, Nor language possessed, nor life-hue: Odhinn gave them breath, Haenir senses, Blood and life hue Lothur gave. I know an ash tree, named Yggdrasil: Sparkling showers are shed on its leaves That drip dew, into the dales below, By Urd's well it waves evergreen, Stands over that still pool, Near it a bower whence now there come The Fate Maidens, first Urd, Skuld second, scorer of runes, Then Verdandi, third of the Norns: The laws that determine the lives of men They fixed forever and their fate sealed. The first war in the world I well remember, When Gullveig was spitted on spear-points And burned in the hall of. the high god: Thrice burned, thrice reborn, Often laid low, she lives yet, The gods hastened to their hall of judgement, Sat in council to discover who Had tainted all the air with corruption And Odhinn's maid offered to the giants, At the host Odhinn hurled his spear In the first world-battle; broken was the plankwall Of the gods fortress: the fierce Vanes Caused war to occur in the fields. The gods hastened to their hall of judgement, Sat in council to discover who Had tainted all the air with corruption And Odhinn's maid offered to the giants. One Thorr felled in his fierce rage; Seldom he sits when of such he hears: Oaths were broken, binding vows, Solemn agreements sworn between them. Valkyries I saw, coming from afar, Eagerly riding to aid the Goths; Skuld bore one shield, Skogul another Gunn, Hild, Gondul and Spearskogul: Duly have I named the daughters of Odhinn, The valiant riders the Valkyries. Baldur I saw the bleeding God, His fate still hidden, Odhinn's Son: Tall on the plain a plant grew, A slender marvel, the mistletoe. |
From that fair shrub, shot by Hodur,
Flew the fatal dart that felled the god, . But Baldur' s brother was born soon after: Though one night old, Odhinn's Son Took a vow to avenge that death. His hands he washed not nor his hair combed . Till Baldur's bane was borne to the pyre:, Deadly the bow drawn by Vali, The strong string of stretched gut, But Frigga wept in Fensalir For the woe of Valhalla. Well, would you know more? I see one in bonds by the boiling springs; Like Loki he looks, loathsome to view: There Sigyn sits, sad by her husband, In woe by her man. Well would you know more? From the east through Venom Valley runs Over jagged rocks the River Gruesome. North, in Darkdale, stands the dwelling place Of Sindri's kin, covered with gold; A hall also in Everfrost, The banquet hall of Brimir the giant. A third I see, that no sunlight reaches, On Dead Man's Shore: the doors face northward, Through its smoke vent venom drips, Serpent skins enskein that hall. Men wade there tormented by the stream, Vile murderers, men forsworn And artful seducers of other mens wives: Nidhogg sucks blood from the bodies of the dead The wolf rends them. Well, would you know more? In the east dwells a crone, in Ironwood: The brood of Fenris are bred there Wolf-monsters, one of whom Eventually shall devour the sun. The giants watchman, joyful Eggthur Sits on his howe and harps well: The red cock, called All-Knower Boldly crows from Birdwood. Goldencomb to the gods crows Who wakes the warriors in Valhalla: A soot red hen also calls From Hel's hall, deep under the ground. Loud howls Garm before Gnipahellir, Bursting his fetters, Fenris runs: Further in the future afar I behold The twilight of the gods who gave victory. Brother shall strike brother and both fall, Sisters' sons defiled with incest; Evil be on earth, an age of. whoredom, Of sharp sword-play and shields clashing, A wind-age, a wolf-age till the world ruins: No man to another shall mercy show. The waters are troubled, the waves surge up: Announcing now the knell of Fate, Heimdal winds his horn aloft, On Hel's road all men tremble Yggdrasil trembles, the towering ash Groans in woe; the wolf is loose: Odhinn speaks with the head of Mimir Before he is swallowed by Surt's kin. From the east drives Hrym, lifts up his shield The squamous serpent squirms with rage The great worm with the waves contending The pale-beaked eagle pecks at the dead, Shouting for joy: the ship Naglfar Sails out from the east, at its helm Loki With the children of darkness, the doom-bringers Offspring of monsters, allies of the wolf, All who Byleists's brother follow. What of the gods? What of the elves? Gianthome groans the gods are in council The dwarves grieve before their door of stone, Masters of walls. Well, would you know more? Surt with the bane of branches comes From the south, on his sword the sun of the Valgods, Crags topple, the crone falls headlong, Men tread Hel's road, the Heavens split open. A further woe falls upon Hlin As Odhinn comes forth to fight the wolf; The killer of Beli battles with Surt: Now shall fall Frigga's beloved. Now valiant comes Valfather's son, Vidar, to vie with Valdyr in battle, Plunges his sword into he son of Hvedrung, Avenging his father with a fell thrust. Now the son of Hlodyn and Odhinn comes To fight with Fenris; fiercest of warriors He mauls in his rage all Middle-Earth; Men in fear all flee their homesteads; Nine paces back steps Bur's son Retreats from the worm of taunts unafraid. Now death is the portion of doomed men, Red with blood the buildings of gods, The sun turns black in the summer after, Winds whine. Well, would know more? Earth sinks in the sea, the sun turns black, Cast down from Heaven are the hot stars, Fumes reek, into flames burst, The sky itself is scorched with fire. I see Earth rising a second time Out of the foam, fair and green; Down from the fells fish to capture, Wings the eagle; waters flow. At lda's Field the Aesir meet: They remember the worm of Middle-Earth, Ponder again the great twilight And the ancient runes of the high god Boards shall be found of a beauty to wonder at, Boards of gold in the grass long after, The chess boards they owned in the olden days, Unsown acres shall harvests bear, Evil be abolished, Baldur return And Hropt's hall with Hod rebuild, Wise gods. Well, would you know more? Haenir shall wield the wand of prophecy, The sons two brothers set up their dwelling In wide Windhome. Well, would you know more? Fairer than sunlight, I see a hall A hall thatched with gold in Gimle: Kind Lords shall live there in delight for ever. Now rides the Strong One to Rainbow Door, Powerful from heaven, the All-Ruler: From the depths below a drake comes flying The dark dragon from Darkfell, Bears on his opinions the bodies of men, Soars overhead I sink now. |
Saga of Wieland the Smith
The oldest testimony to the Wieland Saga is the 7th century “Franks Casket”. Next to the rather Christian portrayal of the three magi, is an epic illustration of Wieland. It portrays the blood revenge of a tormented man against his oppressors, an idea far removed from any Christian concept. However, in the tradition of old Gothic sagas, the smith is a disir that has fallen into the clutches of a greedy oppressor, namely the king Nidung- who, according to the eddic verses, had Wieland’s knee ligaments cut to prevent any escape. In the original mythical sense, this implied that the king robbed Wieland of his alven ability to be released from his human form as that of a bird. Only the destruction of his oppressor can now release him. Therewith is retribution, in the germanic sense, necessary and justified. In this case, the image of the three magi, can be regarded as a suitable representation. It corresponds to the idea of magic rather than anything of religious intent.
The image shows a smith at his anvil. At his feet is the beheaded body of a youth, namely Nidung’s son. He has the head in his tonges, out of which he will fashion a drinking vessel. When the unwitting father drinks from this vessel, as one did in those times with the skulls of one’s enemies, so ends the cycle of his patrilineage forever. However, the clan may still find heirs through Nidung’s daughter, so she stands next to the anvil, reaching for the cup Wieland hands her. She will drink of the drugged brew and be subsequently raped by the smith. When she carries his child, this also defeats the chance of Nidung’s will continuing through matrilineage. Next to the girl, separated by an ornamental symbol, stands a woman, concealing a bottle in her cloak. If she was the one who brought the drugged brew, then she must be the swan maiden mentioned in the Volundsang. Her assistance in the completion of this retribution ennables his escape in the form of a bird. Conclusively, the bird catcher on the right of this image illustrates Nidung trying to keep hold of his “golden goose”. In this lurks the double meaning that not only represents the alfen, and more so the prosperity they can bring- but the relationship of our hero to his wife, if not his fylgia.
As it is in such illustrations, every element of detail has its meanings. Note the dot above the smith and the two further ones over the throne of the maiden. If we are to interpret their worth in runic values, one would represent feoh- meaning possession, and to the right of his head- the yr rune represents such wealth as bow, gold, jewelry and drinkhorn. The “not” runes over the disembodied head and above the cup the smith holds, give warning. The symbols right and left of the Walkur, make this message clearer. The floralized Eolhx represents a swamp reed that cuts like a knife and is also the sign of the walkur, namely the habitat where they appear in the form of swans.
The oldest testimony to the Wieland Saga is the 7th century “Franks Casket”. Next to the rather Christian portrayal of the three magi, is an epic illustration of Wieland. It portrays the blood revenge of a tormented man against his oppressors, an idea far removed from any Christian concept. However, in the tradition of old Gothic sagas, the smith is a disir that has fallen into the clutches of a greedy oppressor, namely the king Nidung- who, according to the eddic verses, had Wieland’s knee ligaments cut to prevent any escape. In the original mythical sense, this implied that the king robbed Wieland of his alven ability to be released from his human form as that of a bird. Only the destruction of his oppressor can now release him. Therewith is retribution, in the germanic sense, necessary and justified. In this case, the image of the three magi, can be regarded as a suitable representation. It corresponds to the idea of magic rather than anything of religious intent.
The image shows a smith at his anvil. At his feet is the beheaded body of a youth, namely Nidung’s son. He has the head in his tonges, out of which he will fashion a drinking vessel. When the unwitting father drinks from this vessel, as one did in those times with the skulls of one’s enemies, so ends the cycle of his patrilineage forever. However, the clan may still find heirs through Nidung’s daughter, so she stands next to the anvil, reaching for the cup Wieland hands her. She will drink of the drugged brew and be subsequently raped by the smith. When she carries his child, this also defeats the chance of Nidung’s will continuing through matrilineage. Next to the girl, separated by an ornamental symbol, stands a woman, concealing a bottle in her cloak. If she was the one who brought the drugged brew, then she must be the swan maiden mentioned in the Volundsang. Her assistance in the completion of this retribution ennables his escape in the form of a bird. Conclusively, the bird catcher on the right of this image illustrates Nidung trying to keep hold of his “golden goose”. In this lurks the double meaning that not only represents the alfen, and more so the prosperity they can bring- but the relationship of our hero to his wife, if not his fylgia.
As it is in such illustrations, every element of detail has its meanings. Note the dot above the smith and the two further ones over the throne of the maiden. If we are to interpret their worth in runic values, one would represent feoh- meaning possession, and to the right of his head- the yr rune represents such wealth as bow, gold, jewelry and drinkhorn. The “not” runes over the disembodied head and above the cup the smith holds, give warning. The symbols right and left of the Walkur, make this message clearer. The floralized Eolhx represents a swamp reed that cuts like a knife and is also the sign of the walkur, namely the habitat where they appear in the form of swans.
In the Gotland stone, we see a similar testimony of the Wieland saga. At the focal point of this particular scene, is the cross-section of a house with turf roof. Two hammers and two tonges show that it houses the smith’s forge. There are two beheaded figures to the right of it and possibly the outline of a boat beneath them. Left, from the opening in the wall of the house flies a huge bird form. The woman, man and bird appear so closely intertwined in it that they stand out from the rest as a union symbolic of the retribution having been fulfilled. Superimposed on this is also the figure of woman leaving in the same direction. This is Nidung’s daughter, while the two beheaded figures are those of the king’s sons.
The oldest literary evidence of the Volundsaga can be found in the Codex Regius and an eddic fragment of the Codex Arnamagneanus. In medieval efforts to compose these spurious fragments into a tangible story, much of the alfen attributes of Wieland became replaced with more mortal associations to the son of a northern king, and a number of romantic variations on the theme of his journey southward into the clutches of his inevitable nemesis king Nidung. Nidung and his clan too is portrayed in various forms from greedy despot to mythical king of the nyades (treacherous water spirits). Needless to say, over the course the story loses much of its original character of the germanic mindset.
Wieland the Young Smith
(translated from a German children's fable)
As Wieland turned 9 winters old, his father Wate said to him. "You have bright eyes and are a clever lad. You shall learn a useful craft. I want you to become a smith. Wieland was full of joy, and so he rode with his father to Mime, the master smith. The trip took many days. Mime immediately took the diligent boy into apprenticeship. The lad proved himself most worthy and his master enjoyed putting his skills to the test. There was plenty of work in the forge, knights and peasants came from afar. Mime had to make swords and spears for the knights, while the peasants required nails, horseshoes and chains. Mime needed ever more apprentices and journeymen. One day the young Siegfried came to Mime in apprenticeship as well. He was a strong and wild lad. He often got into fights with the other apprentices and journeymen, even Wieland.
Of course when Wate got wind of this, he took his son home. Wieland had been an apprentice at Mime’s smithy for 3 years and had become quite creatively skilled in his craft. His amazing talent was the talk of the land, thus it brought him plenty of work. Wieland stuck around home for about 12 months. Then one day he learned of two dwarves, living in a hollow mountain. They were the best smiths in the entire world. They could not only forge swords, helmets and knives, but also the most artistic torques, bracelets and rings of gold- all manner of jewelry much sought after by the womenfolk. There was nothing they couldn’t craft out of metal.
When Wate learned of these artisans, he took the now 13 year old Wieland to them. On the 9th day of their journey they came to a broad river without a bridge. Nor was an ferry to be found. Thus the giant carried his son on his shoulders as he waded across the deep waters. Finally, when they reached the dwarves, Wate spoke: “This is my son Wieland and I want him to learn his craft better. For that I wish to offer you a hat full of gold”. Of course, the dwarves were only too keen to accept, so Wate concluded: "After 12 months I shall return to collect him”. Thus Wieland remained with the dwarves in their mountain forge. He was so clever and skillful that he soon became as skilled as his masters.
Then at the end of that year, Wate, returned to take Wieland home. The dwarves, however were not keen to give the talented young man up so easily. They said to Wate: "If you leave Wieland with us another 12 months, then we’ll return you your hat full of gold." Wate was somewhat hesitant about this, so they asked: "and what if we teach him twice as much, as he has already mastered?" To that, Wate agreed. However as deceitful as they were in their second thoughts about the gold, they said to Wate. "If you don’t return on this same day in 12 months, then we’ll kill the lad." Wate thought to himself: This day I’ll never forget. That, I am certain. Thus he had Wieland escort him a short ways before leaving. Once certain they were far enough away that the dwarves could no longer see them, Wate drew his sword and shoved it into the earth under a birchtree, until only the grip was barely visible. He told Wieland “Remember this place well! If I should not be with you in a year from today, and the dwarves intend to harm you, there is the sword. Fend yourself bravely! It is better you slay them, than allow them any chance to kill you." The two then bade their farewells and the father rode off homewards.
The young smith returned to the dwarves' enclave and the mountain closed behind him with a thundering. In the months to follow, Wieland learned the finest of metalurgy from the two dwarves. He was friendly and helpful wherever he could- but they grew increasingly jealous, as he soon achieved more than they ever could. Secretly, they only wished that his father would never return in time. The father, however, hastily made his way back before the year ended. Not once did he sleep, lest he arrive too late. So it happened that he arrived at the mountain three days earlier than planned and found the mountain was still sealed shut. Wate was tired from the journey and desperately needed sleep- so he laid down behind the mountain, under a cliff and soon fell into a deep slumber. While he slept the rain came down so heavily that the entire side of the mountain gave away into a landslide burying him deep. The slag was so thick and heavy that Wate never woke up, unable to breathe under this dense mass.
The next day the dwarves opened the mountain to see if Wate had arrived. When they could not see him, Wieland said: "I will go out a ways to meet him." The dwarves permitted him. Enroute, Wieland came across the valley where the landslide had occurred. It was then, he feared that his father had met his doom. Thus he searched for the sword and found it, and summing up his courage, returned to the enclave. The dwarves were waiting for him, and seeing the sword in his hand, they were intent on killing him- but Wieland was much too fast for them. Swiftly he struck down the one and then the other, collected the tools of gold and silver, and loaded them on the dwarves’ steed. Wieland hastened 6 days on foot until he arrived at the river. The horse was too heavily laiden to swim, so Wieland felled a large tree and stripped it smoothly of its bark. He hollowed out the trunk, stuffed it with his treasures and provisions, then carved an entrance he could close as well as made a proper window of glass. He let the steed free then climbed into his tree-vessel. The current readily carried it off down the river.
After 18 days, the log finally became caught in a fishnet. When the fishermen saw the strange log with the window in it, they ran to King Nidung and told him of their peculiar catch. King Nidung immediately went to the scene and ordered that they split the log. When they struck the log with an axe Wieland spoke up: "You people stop that, in this tree is a living man!” Hearing this, they thought for sure it was the devil, so they scattered in fear like young lambs. In the meantime, however, Wieland lifted the door of his subterfuge, and slipped out into the open. He approached King Nidung, greeting him formally and told his story. The King had always desperately needed such a good craftsman, thus asked him if he would be his royal smith...and so Wieland became reknowned for his skill throughout the kingdom- the desire of every knight to possess one of his swords.
The Sorcerous Finfolk
From: Orkneyjar, the heritage of the Orkney Islands
http://www.orkneyjar.com/folklore/finfolk/index.html
The Finfolk of Orkney folklore were a race of dark and gloomy sorcerers, feared and mistrusted by mortals. Their boating skills were unparalleled and as well as having power over storm and sea, they were noted shapeshifters. Unlike the selkie-folk, who were restricted - according to some tales at least - in the times they could come ashore, the Finfolk were truly amphibious. They came and went as they pleased, venturing between their undersea world and the human realm as they wished.
The Finfolk led a nomadic lifestyle. They spent the long Orkney winters in the luxury of Finfolkaheem, a majestic city of unknown location, but usually said to be at the bottom of the sea. In the summer, however, they returned to Orkney, where they took up residence on their magical island home, Hildaland - one of Orkney's magical vanishing islands. Tradition has it that this Hildaland was later taken from the Finfolk and renamed Eynhallow.
There were two distinct divisions within the ranks of the Finfolk - these were, unsurprisingly, the Finman and the Finwife. The tales of the Finmen generally make up the bulk of the folklore and are fairly standard in their descriptions of the gloomy creatures.
Abductions
The Finfolk shared one common trait with Orkney's land-dwelling hill-folk and trows - they had an unpleasant penchant for stealing away mortals.
They would spirit away their captives, transporting them to their hidden island homes, where they generally forced to remain for the rest of their days. These unfortunates were usually taken to become the wife or husband of one of the Finfolk. As is detailed elsewhere, the Finwife had a particularly good reason for acquiring a mortal husband. But beneath these legends of abductions, it is clear how the Finfolk's malevolent influence could have been used to explain away the many disappearances and deaths at sea.
Imagine a grief stricken mother, sat in a silent croft by a raging sea. Would it not be better to hope your lost son had been taken by the sea folk, perhaps to return again, alive and well, some day?
Christianity and the Finfolk
In common with most of Orkney's other supernatural inhabitants, the disappearance of the Finfolk was blamed on the arrival of Christianity.
When the old people of Orkney were asked why the Finmen were no longer seen, they simply replied: "De Finmen cinno' live whar' the true Gospel is preached on de land, and a sprole used fir fishin' oan da sea." The "sprole" mentioned above was a fishing device allowing the fisherman to use two hooks on one line.
The influence of the Finman and his kin was feared right through until at least the end of the nineteenth century, and the above statement was probably recorded around that time, as the folklore began to slip out of the Orcadian consciousness.
Merging traditions
Although it appears that the Finfolk were a stark contrast to the relatively benign selkie-folk, this is actually far from the truth. Above all of the creatures of Orkney myth, the selkie-folk have been "sugar-coated" in recent years to create an angelic benevolent sea-spirit - a far cry from the original entities that struck terror into believers. In addition, both bodies of folklore, although now regarded as completely distinct, were probably one and the same.
Although the sea-dwelling Finfolk tales appear to contain elements from a number of different sources, they were almost certainly based on the "Finns" of Norwegian tradition. The indigenous inhabitants of northern Norway, the "Finns" were also renowned for their "magical powers".
In Orkney and Shetland, these people, known as "Norway Finns", occupied a place somewhere between myth and fact. Over time, elements of other lore became grafted to the exploits of these magicians - including, for example, elements acquired from the tales of the now forgotten Huldrefolk. The resultant confusion with other aspects of Norse and Orcadian myth leaves us with the Finfolk and selkie folklore we have today.
In Orkney, the Finfolk retained the Norway Finns' reputation as powerful sorcerers, although there are actually very few tales where they wield this supposed power. By the time the legends came to be recorded, they had already begun to fade. So not only were elements blurred, or forgotten, but they were reinterpreted by the folklorists of the time. The recorded Orcadian explanation for the name "Finfolk", for example, was simple. It had nothing to do with Scandinavian sorcerers. The "Finn folk" surely had fishlike fins. These fins, it was recorded, were cunningly disguised, so that when viewed by a human they looked like flowing articles of clothing.
Further north, in Shetland, there was no such misconception about fins. There, the link between the Norway Finns was recorded as late as the end of the 19th century. In these accounts, the Shetland Finns had all the trademarks of Orkney's Finfolk and selkie-folk.
The oldest literary evidence of the Volundsaga can be found in the Codex Regius and an eddic fragment of the Codex Arnamagneanus. In medieval efforts to compose these spurious fragments into a tangible story, much of the alfen attributes of Wieland became replaced with more mortal associations to the son of a northern king, and a number of romantic variations on the theme of his journey southward into the clutches of his inevitable nemesis king Nidung. Nidung and his clan too is portrayed in various forms from greedy despot to mythical king of the nyades (treacherous water spirits). Needless to say, over the course the story loses much of its original character of the germanic mindset.
Wieland the Young Smith
(translated from a German children's fable)
As Wieland turned 9 winters old, his father Wate said to him. "You have bright eyes and are a clever lad. You shall learn a useful craft. I want you to become a smith. Wieland was full of joy, and so he rode with his father to Mime, the master smith. The trip took many days. Mime immediately took the diligent boy into apprenticeship. The lad proved himself most worthy and his master enjoyed putting his skills to the test. There was plenty of work in the forge, knights and peasants came from afar. Mime had to make swords and spears for the knights, while the peasants required nails, horseshoes and chains. Mime needed ever more apprentices and journeymen. One day the young Siegfried came to Mime in apprenticeship as well. He was a strong and wild lad. He often got into fights with the other apprentices and journeymen, even Wieland.
Of course when Wate got wind of this, he took his son home. Wieland had been an apprentice at Mime’s smithy for 3 years and had become quite creatively skilled in his craft. His amazing talent was the talk of the land, thus it brought him plenty of work. Wieland stuck around home for about 12 months. Then one day he learned of two dwarves, living in a hollow mountain. They were the best smiths in the entire world. They could not only forge swords, helmets and knives, but also the most artistic torques, bracelets and rings of gold- all manner of jewelry much sought after by the womenfolk. There was nothing they couldn’t craft out of metal.
When Wate learned of these artisans, he took the now 13 year old Wieland to them. On the 9th day of their journey they came to a broad river without a bridge. Nor was an ferry to be found. Thus the giant carried his son on his shoulders as he waded across the deep waters. Finally, when they reached the dwarves, Wate spoke: “This is my son Wieland and I want him to learn his craft better. For that I wish to offer you a hat full of gold”. Of course, the dwarves were only too keen to accept, so Wate concluded: "After 12 months I shall return to collect him”. Thus Wieland remained with the dwarves in their mountain forge. He was so clever and skillful that he soon became as skilled as his masters.
Then at the end of that year, Wate, returned to take Wieland home. The dwarves, however were not keen to give the talented young man up so easily. They said to Wate: "If you leave Wieland with us another 12 months, then we’ll return you your hat full of gold." Wate was somewhat hesitant about this, so they asked: "and what if we teach him twice as much, as he has already mastered?" To that, Wate agreed. However as deceitful as they were in their second thoughts about the gold, they said to Wate. "If you don’t return on this same day in 12 months, then we’ll kill the lad." Wate thought to himself: This day I’ll never forget. That, I am certain. Thus he had Wieland escort him a short ways before leaving. Once certain they were far enough away that the dwarves could no longer see them, Wate drew his sword and shoved it into the earth under a birchtree, until only the grip was barely visible. He told Wieland “Remember this place well! If I should not be with you in a year from today, and the dwarves intend to harm you, there is the sword. Fend yourself bravely! It is better you slay them, than allow them any chance to kill you." The two then bade their farewells and the father rode off homewards.
The young smith returned to the dwarves' enclave and the mountain closed behind him with a thundering. In the months to follow, Wieland learned the finest of metalurgy from the two dwarves. He was friendly and helpful wherever he could- but they grew increasingly jealous, as he soon achieved more than they ever could. Secretly, they only wished that his father would never return in time. The father, however, hastily made his way back before the year ended. Not once did he sleep, lest he arrive too late. So it happened that he arrived at the mountain three days earlier than planned and found the mountain was still sealed shut. Wate was tired from the journey and desperately needed sleep- so he laid down behind the mountain, under a cliff and soon fell into a deep slumber. While he slept the rain came down so heavily that the entire side of the mountain gave away into a landslide burying him deep. The slag was so thick and heavy that Wate never woke up, unable to breathe under this dense mass.
The next day the dwarves opened the mountain to see if Wate had arrived. When they could not see him, Wieland said: "I will go out a ways to meet him." The dwarves permitted him. Enroute, Wieland came across the valley where the landslide had occurred. It was then, he feared that his father had met his doom. Thus he searched for the sword and found it, and summing up his courage, returned to the enclave. The dwarves were waiting for him, and seeing the sword in his hand, they were intent on killing him- but Wieland was much too fast for them. Swiftly he struck down the one and then the other, collected the tools of gold and silver, and loaded them on the dwarves’ steed. Wieland hastened 6 days on foot until he arrived at the river. The horse was too heavily laiden to swim, so Wieland felled a large tree and stripped it smoothly of its bark. He hollowed out the trunk, stuffed it with his treasures and provisions, then carved an entrance he could close as well as made a proper window of glass. He let the steed free then climbed into his tree-vessel. The current readily carried it off down the river.
After 18 days, the log finally became caught in a fishnet. When the fishermen saw the strange log with the window in it, they ran to King Nidung and told him of their peculiar catch. King Nidung immediately went to the scene and ordered that they split the log. When they struck the log with an axe Wieland spoke up: "You people stop that, in this tree is a living man!” Hearing this, they thought for sure it was the devil, so they scattered in fear like young lambs. In the meantime, however, Wieland lifted the door of his subterfuge, and slipped out into the open. He approached King Nidung, greeting him formally and told his story. The King had always desperately needed such a good craftsman, thus asked him if he would be his royal smith...and so Wieland became reknowned for his skill throughout the kingdom- the desire of every knight to possess one of his swords.
The Sorcerous Finfolk
From: Orkneyjar, the heritage of the Orkney Islands
http://www.orkneyjar.com/folklore/finfolk/index.html
The Finfolk of Orkney folklore were a race of dark and gloomy sorcerers, feared and mistrusted by mortals. Their boating skills were unparalleled and as well as having power over storm and sea, they were noted shapeshifters. Unlike the selkie-folk, who were restricted - according to some tales at least - in the times they could come ashore, the Finfolk were truly amphibious. They came and went as they pleased, venturing between their undersea world and the human realm as they wished.
The Finfolk led a nomadic lifestyle. They spent the long Orkney winters in the luxury of Finfolkaheem, a majestic city of unknown location, but usually said to be at the bottom of the sea. In the summer, however, they returned to Orkney, where they took up residence on their magical island home, Hildaland - one of Orkney's magical vanishing islands. Tradition has it that this Hildaland was later taken from the Finfolk and renamed Eynhallow.
There were two distinct divisions within the ranks of the Finfolk - these were, unsurprisingly, the Finman and the Finwife. The tales of the Finmen generally make up the bulk of the folklore and are fairly standard in their descriptions of the gloomy creatures.
Abductions
The Finfolk shared one common trait with Orkney's land-dwelling hill-folk and trows - they had an unpleasant penchant for stealing away mortals.
They would spirit away their captives, transporting them to their hidden island homes, where they generally forced to remain for the rest of their days. These unfortunates were usually taken to become the wife or husband of one of the Finfolk. As is detailed elsewhere, the Finwife had a particularly good reason for acquiring a mortal husband. But beneath these legends of abductions, it is clear how the Finfolk's malevolent influence could have been used to explain away the many disappearances and deaths at sea.
Imagine a grief stricken mother, sat in a silent croft by a raging sea. Would it not be better to hope your lost son had been taken by the sea folk, perhaps to return again, alive and well, some day?
Christianity and the Finfolk
In common with most of Orkney's other supernatural inhabitants, the disappearance of the Finfolk was blamed on the arrival of Christianity.
When the old people of Orkney were asked why the Finmen were no longer seen, they simply replied: "De Finmen cinno' live whar' the true Gospel is preached on de land, and a sprole used fir fishin' oan da sea." The "sprole" mentioned above was a fishing device allowing the fisherman to use two hooks on one line.
The influence of the Finman and his kin was feared right through until at least the end of the nineteenth century, and the above statement was probably recorded around that time, as the folklore began to slip out of the Orcadian consciousness.
Merging traditions
Although it appears that the Finfolk were a stark contrast to the relatively benign selkie-folk, this is actually far from the truth. Above all of the creatures of Orkney myth, the selkie-folk have been "sugar-coated" in recent years to create an angelic benevolent sea-spirit - a far cry from the original entities that struck terror into believers. In addition, both bodies of folklore, although now regarded as completely distinct, were probably one and the same.
Although the sea-dwelling Finfolk tales appear to contain elements from a number of different sources, they were almost certainly based on the "Finns" of Norwegian tradition. The indigenous inhabitants of northern Norway, the "Finns" were also renowned for their "magical powers".
In Orkney and Shetland, these people, known as "Norway Finns", occupied a place somewhere between myth and fact. Over time, elements of other lore became grafted to the exploits of these magicians - including, for example, elements acquired from the tales of the now forgotten Huldrefolk. The resultant confusion with other aspects of Norse and Orcadian myth leaves us with the Finfolk and selkie folklore we have today.
In Orkney, the Finfolk retained the Norway Finns' reputation as powerful sorcerers, although there are actually very few tales where they wield this supposed power. By the time the legends came to be recorded, they had already begun to fade. So not only were elements blurred, or forgotten, but they were reinterpreted by the folklorists of the time. The recorded Orcadian explanation for the name "Finfolk", for example, was simple. It had nothing to do with Scandinavian sorcerers. The "Finn folk" surely had fishlike fins. These fins, it was recorded, were cunningly disguised, so that when viewed by a human they looked like flowing articles of clothing.
Further north, in Shetland, there was no such misconception about fins. There, the link between the Norway Finns was recorded as late as the end of the 19th century. In these accounts, the Shetland Finns had all the trademarks of Orkney's Finfolk and selkie-folk.
About Snorri Sturlusson's "Gylfaginning"Here in the original Icelandic:
https://notendur.hi.is//~eybjorn/gg/index.html
and here a translation of the Yngling Saga:
http://omacl.org/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html
Snorri's account of the deception of King Gylfi of Sweden, who after being tricked by a goddess of the Aesir wonders if all Aesir resort to such deceptions to have their way. He heads for Asgard but is waylaid by the gods to quite another palace, where he meets three figures seated upon thrones; High upon the lowest, Just-As-High on the mid-highest, and Third on the highest of the thrones. As is tradition in the sagas he is challenged to ask them each a question. Thus the myths of the Aesir, creation and destruction unfold as each tell them. In the end the palace and all disappears and Gylfi finds himself on ordinary ground as if it was all a dream.
Note that Snorri Sturlusson was born of a rich and powerful clan in 12th century Iceland, and raised by a member of the Norwegian royal family, thus affording him the political influence he not only aspired to gain through recording the old oral traditions but his work as a lawspeaker at the Althing as well as being an envoy of the King of Norway. Yet despite all well thought out schemes and negotiations, divided between the interests of the tribal chiefs and those of the King of Norway, he all too often proved unreliable. In the end this led to his assassination by Gissur on the orders of the king.
One should also note that these transcripts were written in a period where the Holy Roman empire had well established a Christian education system throughout the territories of its allies, Its obvious influences in Snorri's retelling of the old myths is a favourite subject of dispute between historians as to their authenticity. Nonetheless, sources of the creation and Ragnarok myth can be found in the verses of "Voluspa" (Song of the Volva) which is a much earlier Scandinavian work:.
Knowing that Germanic beliefs have their basis in ancestor worship, one does have to wonder if the gods were once mortals among these tribes. Snorri Sturlusson, in his knowledge of the histories of the Scandinavian kings, was certainly of the assumption that the Aesir were once living tribal heroes that over the course of oral tradition came to be deified as ancestral patrons.
Also, history has it that a run of bad winters drove the Germanic peoples to seek out fairer climates and not just in the days of the Vikings. Hence, Germanic beliefs before their people established a relatively communal existence were never quite as organized as academics will have us assume. Each clan had its own ancestral patron and oral traditions thereof.
In the fore-Alpine regions of Germany one cannot quite compare the myths of Wotan to his Scandinavian alterego Odin, as the former was a wilderness patron of male shamanic rituals, rather like Cernunnos of the Celts. In essence it's hard generalize what was actually a diaspora of practices dependent on whatever their geographical location and its conditions. Rather, the Viking Age only represents a northerly portion of time in the whole Celto-Germanic-Slavic mix that much of Europe is over the course of the last 2000+ years.
https://notendur.hi.is//~eybjorn/gg/index.html
and here a translation of the Yngling Saga:
http://omacl.org/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html
Snorri's account of the deception of King Gylfi of Sweden, who after being tricked by a goddess of the Aesir wonders if all Aesir resort to such deceptions to have their way. He heads for Asgard but is waylaid by the gods to quite another palace, where he meets three figures seated upon thrones; High upon the lowest, Just-As-High on the mid-highest, and Third on the highest of the thrones. As is tradition in the sagas he is challenged to ask them each a question. Thus the myths of the Aesir, creation and destruction unfold as each tell them. In the end the palace and all disappears and Gylfi finds himself on ordinary ground as if it was all a dream.
Note that Snorri Sturlusson was born of a rich and powerful clan in 12th century Iceland, and raised by a member of the Norwegian royal family, thus affording him the political influence he not only aspired to gain through recording the old oral traditions but his work as a lawspeaker at the Althing as well as being an envoy of the King of Norway. Yet despite all well thought out schemes and negotiations, divided between the interests of the tribal chiefs and those of the King of Norway, he all too often proved unreliable. In the end this led to his assassination by Gissur on the orders of the king.
One should also note that these transcripts were written in a period where the Holy Roman empire had well established a Christian education system throughout the territories of its allies, Its obvious influences in Snorri's retelling of the old myths is a favourite subject of dispute between historians as to their authenticity. Nonetheless, sources of the creation and Ragnarok myth can be found in the verses of "Voluspa" (Song of the Volva) which is a much earlier Scandinavian work:.
Knowing that Germanic beliefs have their basis in ancestor worship, one does have to wonder if the gods were once mortals among these tribes. Snorri Sturlusson, in his knowledge of the histories of the Scandinavian kings, was certainly of the assumption that the Aesir were once living tribal heroes that over the course of oral tradition came to be deified as ancestral patrons.
Also, history has it that a run of bad winters drove the Germanic peoples to seek out fairer climates and not just in the days of the Vikings. Hence, Germanic beliefs before their people established a relatively communal existence were never quite as organized as academics will have us assume. Each clan had its own ancestral patron and oral traditions thereof.
In the fore-Alpine regions of Germany one cannot quite compare the myths of Wotan to his Scandinavian alterego Odin, as the former was a wilderness patron of male shamanic rituals, rather like Cernunnos of the Celts. In essence it's hard generalize what was actually a diaspora of practices dependent on whatever their geographical location and its conditions. Rather, the Viking Age only represents a northerly portion of time in the whole Celto-Germanic-Slavic mix that much of Europe is over the course of the last 2000+ years.
The Bloodeagle (ON rísta blóðörn)
We are told that the well-known " rista blóðörn " was a form of sarifice to Óðinn in which the ribs of the victim were cut from the back and the lungs drawn out. An example of this form of sacrifice comes from the episode in which Hálfdan Highleg, son of Harald Fine-hair was defeated and captured by Torf-Einar, Jarl of Orkney. Torf-Einar cut the blood-eagle on his back and gave him to Óðinn (gaf hann Óðni). In the sagas, the blood-eagle seems to have been utilized as a form of revenge by sons avenging the death of their fathers.
However, the literary tradition that gives rise to these stories all derive from one source, that of a drápa (priase poem) composed by the skáld Sighvatr, for King Knut. The Knútsdrápa is lost to history save for what was quoted in the prose composition Þáttr af Ragnars sonum. The verse in question, referring to Ivarr's treatment of King Ella of Northumbria, is as follows:
Ok Ellu bak,
at lét hinn's sat,
Ívarr, ara,
Iorvík, skorit.
And Ella's back
had Ivarr,
who dwelt in York,
an eagle cut.
Roberta Frank says of the episode,
An experienced reader of skaldic poetry, looking at Sighvatr's stanza in isolation of its saga context, would have trouble seeing it as anything but a conventional utterance, an allusion to the eagle as carrion beast, the pale bird with red claws perched on and slashing the backs of the slain: Ivarr had Ella's back scored by an eagle. 'The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported that the English king fell in battle against the Vikings at York;' the skald says the same and more through his metaphoric shorthand, which scornfully demotes the king slain by Ivarr to the rank of prey, to a mutilated carcass....Deprived of its skaldic stanza, the rite of the blood-eagle has no Viking age support.
Simek observes that the bloodeagle "could originally come from a form of human sacrifice" given that Jarl Einarr "sacrificed him to Odin for the victory" but that "other evidence for this kind of killing suggests, however, that it could originally have been a special kind of revenge directed at the killer of one's father."
This is a contentious subject for Heathens, between those who want to deny the role and reality of human sacrifice or simply brutal behavior by Heathens, and those who wish to accept it as fact. Needless to say, if factual, it is one of those customs for which there is no place in our modern world.
Sources:
Roberta Frank, "Viking atrocity and Skaldic verse: The Rite of the Blood-Eagle" by Roberta Frank, The English Historical Review, Vol. 99, No. 391 (April 1984), 332-343
We are told that the well-known " rista blóðörn " was a form of sarifice to Óðinn in which the ribs of the victim were cut from the back and the lungs drawn out. An example of this form of sacrifice comes from the episode in which Hálfdan Highleg, son of Harald Fine-hair was defeated and captured by Torf-Einar, Jarl of Orkney. Torf-Einar cut the blood-eagle on his back and gave him to Óðinn (gaf hann Óðni). In the sagas, the blood-eagle seems to have been utilized as a form of revenge by sons avenging the death of their fathers.
However, the literary tradition that gives rise to these stories all derive from one source, that of a drápa (priase poem) composed by the skáld Sighvatr, for King Knut. The Knútsdrápa is lost to history save for what was quoted in the prose composition Þáttr af Ragnars sonum. The verse in question, referring to Ivarr's treatment of King Ella of Northumbria, is as follows:
Ok Ellu bak,
at lét hinn's sat,
Ívarr, ara,
Iorvík, skorit.
And Ella's back
had Ivarr,
who dwelt in York,
an eagle cut.
Roberta Frank says of the episode,
An experienced reader of skaldic poetry, looking at Sighvatr's stanza in isolation of its saga context, would have trouble seeing it as anything but a conventional utterance, an allusion to the eagle as carrion beast, the pale bird with red claws perched on and slashing the backs of the slain: Ivarr had Ella's back scored by an eagle. 'The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported that the English king fell in battle against the Vikings at York;' the skald says the same and more through his metaphoric shorthand, which scornfully demotes the king slain by Ivarr to the rank of prey, to a mutilated carcass....Deprived of its skaldic stanza, the rite of the blood-eagle has no Viking age support.
Simek observes that the bloodeagle "could originally come from a form of human sacrifice" given that Jarl Einarr "sacrificed him to Odin for the victory" but that "other evidence for this kind of killing suggests, however, that it could originally have been a special kind of revenge directed at the killer of one's father."
This is a contentious subject for Heathens, between those who want to deny the role and reality of human sacrifice or simply brutal behavior by Heathens, and those who wish to accept it as fact. Needless to say, if factual, it is one of those customs for which there is no place in our modern world.
Sources:
Roberta Frank, "Viking atrocity and Skaldic verse: The Rite of the Blood-Eagle" by Roberta Frank, The English Historical Review, Vol. 99, No. 391 (April 1984), 332-343
About Bifrost
Indeed there is always much debate as to what natural phenomenon the Norse myths are describing. What we coin in English as the “rainbow bridge” naturally assumes it is a rainbow, however, in the original language of the Norse, bifrǫst meant “tremulous way”- from bifask ”to tremble” and rǫst ”a distance”. What immediately springs to my mind on such connotations, is none other than the Aurora Borealis. Some suggest it may even describe the milky way, however, references to its “red flaming fires” speak otherwise.
To those of us who have lived and travelled above the 49th parallel for quite sometime, the Aurora is a common sight at the best of times. Thus its hard to imagine that the Norse would conceive its formidable appearance and behaviour in the sky as anything less than a bridge to the hall of the courageous, in itself, full of perils to the uninvited. North German folklore describes the hiss and crackle of its shifling light forms as the clatter of the warriors’ battlegear, and the glint of sunlight off the valkyrie shields, as they move along its course. If this were not the case, then the awe of the Aurora Borealis would be too conspicuously absent from nordic culture. Rather, I think the rainbow was a cross with the Celtic idea of the Summerlands or emphasized later to allude to the Christian idea of a more paradisical afterworld.
Indeed there is always much debate as to what natural phenomenon the Norse myths are describing. What we coin in English as the “rainbow bridge” naturally assumes it is a rainbow, however, in the original language of the Norse, bifrǫst meant “tremulous way”- from bifask ”to tremble” and rǫst ”a distance”. What immediately springs to my mind on such connotations, is none other than the Aurora Borealis. Some suggest it may even describe the milky way, however, references to its “red flaming fires” speak otherwise.
To those of us who have lived and travelled above the 49th parallel for quite sometime, the Aurora is a common sight at the best of times. Thus its hard to imagine that the Norse would conceive its formidable appearance and behaviour in the sky as anything less than a bridge to the hall of the courageous, in itself, full of perils to the uninvited. North German folklore describes the hiss and crackle of its shifling light forms as the clatter of the warriors’ battlegear, and the glint of sunlight off the valkyrie shields, as they move along its course. If this were not the case, then the awe of the Aurora Borealis would be too conspicuously absent from nordic culture. Rather, I think the rainbow was a cross with the Celtic idea of the Summerlands or emphasized later to allude to the Christian idea of a more paradisical afterworld.