The Elder Futhark
One day Odin rode his white horse Sleipnir until he reached the world ash Yggdrasil. There he saw three women sitting at the well. They were busy spinning threads and weaving the garment of fate for gods and men. Nornes, they were called- Urd, Werdandi, Skuld. Thereupon, the three women revealed to the god many secrets of the distant past and foretold the far-off future.
But the god was eager to learn even more about the worlds. So the women referred him to the giant Mimir, who dwells at the spring of wisdom, whose nourishing liquids feed the world tree.
Odin rode to Mimir. But the giant did not want to give his knowledge so easily. Therefore, Odin pledged his left eye to the mighty one. Then Mimir showed him the mysteries of this world.
Still, the Allfather was not fully satisfied in his quest for wisdom. On the way back through the desolate heath, he came upon a leafless tree. It was the Fogmoon and the frosty twilight permeated the landscape. Suddenly, his coat was caught in the branches of the tree. Odin hung between heaven and earth. In vain, he tried to free himself. Herjafather's white horse "Sleipnir", also called "Glidehoof," circled around him, whinnying. His ravens "Hugin" and "Munin"-thought and memory- flew around him agitatedly and brought the world's thoughts to him.
Odin struggled with himself for the ultimate wisdom. Nine nights he hung on the windswept tree. His inner being gradually grew clearer and more luminous. Now he finally found the symbols of life's noblest values. He bent down deeply from the tree. Groaning with extreme exertion, he took up the signs and cut them into the trunk with his sword. Rune she called these sacred glyphs, because they whisper wisdom to the initiated (the word "rune" is related to the German "raunen"= to whisper). Now, Skyfather was possessed by the mighty ability to free himself from the tree. He fell down, jumped up, called his steed and rode back to Valhalla, the castle of the gods.
Odin-Wotan proceeded to initiate his divine companions into the lore of the runes. He also gave this gift to his most loyal men. Men who lived according to his laws and fought alongside him for the cosmic universal order and against the dark forces. Chosen women were also instructed in the runic arts by the god. Now the signs became the sacred writing of the Germanic people, as announced by the Eddic Rune Poem.
From an article by Dr. Wieland Hopfner
But the god was eager to learn even more about the worlds. So the women referred him to the giant Mimir, who dwells at the spring of wisdom, whose nourishing liquids feed the world tree.
Odin rode to Mimir. But the giant did not want to give his knowledge so easily. Therefore, Odin pledged his left eye to the mighty one. Then Mimir showed him the mysteries of this world.
Still, the Allfather was not fully satisfied in his quest for wisdom. On the way back through the desolate heath, he came upon a leafless tree. It was the Fogmoon and the frosty twilight permeated the landscape. Suddenly, his coat was caught in the branches of the tree. Odin hung between heaven and earth. In vain, he tried to free himself. Herjafather's white horse "Sleipnir", also called "Glidehoof," circled around him, whinnying. His ravens "Hugin" and "Munin"-thought and memory- flew around him agitatedly and brought the world's thoughts to him.
Odin struggled with himself for the ultimate wisdom. Nine nights he hung on the windswept tree. His inner being gradually grew clearer and more luminous. Now he finally found the symbols of life's noblest values. He bent down deeply from the tree. Groaning with extreme exertion, he took up the signs and cut them into the trunk with his sword. Rune she called these sacred glyphs, because they whisper wisdom to the initiated (the word "rune" is related to the German "raunen"= to whisper). Now, Skyfather was possessed by the mighty ability to free himself from the tree. He fell down, jumped up, called his steed and rode back to Valhalla, the castle of the gods.
Odin-Wotan proceeded to initiate his divine companions into the lore of the runes. He also gave this gift to his most loyal men. Men who lived according to his laws and fought alongside him for the cosmic universal order and against the dark forces. Chosen women were also instructed in the runic arts by the god. Now the signs became the sacred writing of the Germanic people, as announced by the Eddic Rune Poem.
From an article by Dr. Wieland Hopfner
Meanings
Freyja's Aett
Fehu (F: Domestic cattle, wealth.) Possessions won or earned, earned income, luck. Abundance, financial strength in the present or near future. Sign of hope and plenty, success and happiness. Social success. Energy, foresight, fertility, creation/destruction (becoming). Fehu Reversed or Merkstave: Loss of personal property, esteem, or something that you put in effort to keep. It indicates some sort of failure. Greed, burnout, atrophy, discord. Cowardice, stupidity, dullness, poverty, slavery, bondage.
Uruz: (U: Auroch, a wild ox.) Physical strength and speed, untamed potential. A time of great energy and health. Freedom, energy, action, courage, strength, tenacity, understanding, wisdom. Sudden or unexpected changes (usually for the better). Sexual desire, masculine potency. The shaping of power and pattern, formulation of the self. Uruz Reversed or Merkstave: Weakness, obsession, misdirected force, domination by others. Sickness, inconsistency, ignorance. Lust, brutality, rashness, callousness, violence.
Thurisaz: (TH: Thorn or a Giant.) Reactive force, directed force of destruction and defense, conflict. Instinctual will, vital eroticism, regenerative catalyst. A tendency toward change. Catharsis, purging, cleansing fire. Male sexuality, fertilization. (Thorr, the Thunder god, was of Giant stock.)Thurisaz Reversed or Merkstave: Danger, defenselessness, compulsion, betrayal, dullness. Evil, malice, hatred, torment, spite, lies. A bad man or woman. Rape?
Ansuz: (A: The As, ancestral god, i.e. Odin.) A revealing message or insight, communication. Signals, inspiration, enthusiasm, speech, true vision, power of words and naming. Blessings, the taking of advice. Good health, harmony, truth, wisdom. Ansuz Reversed or Merkstave: Misunderstanding, delusion, manipulation by others, boredom. Vanity and grandiloquence. (Odin is a mighty, but duplicitous god. He always has his own agenda.)
Raidho: (R: Wagon or chariot.) Travel, both in physical terms and those of lifestyle direction. A journey, vacation, relocation, evolution, change of place or setting. Seeing a larger perspective. Seeing the right move for you to make and deciding upon it. Personal rhythm, world rhythm, dance of life. Raidho Reversed or Merkstave: Crisis, rigidity, stasis, injustice, irrationality. Disruption, dislocation, demotion, delusion, possibly a death.
Kenaz: (K: Beacon or torch.) Vision, revelation, knowledge, creativity, inspiration, technical ability. Vital fire of life, harnessed power, fire of transformation and regeneration. Power to create your own reality, the power of light. Open to new strength, energy, and power now. Passion, sexual love. Kenaz Reversed or Merkstave: Disease, breakup, instability, lack of creativity. Nakedness, exposure, loss of illusion and false hope.
Gebo: (G: Gift.) Gifts, both in the sense of sacrifice and of generosity, indicating balance. All matters in relation to exchanges, including contracts, personal relationships and partnerships. Gebo Merkstave (Gebo cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Greed, loneliness, dependence, over-sacrifice. Obligation, toll, privation, bribery.
Wunjo: (W or V: Joy.) Joy, comfort, pleasure. Fellowship, harmony, prosperity. Ecstasy, glory, spiritual reward, but also the possibility of going "over the top". If restrained, the meaning is general success and recognition of worth. Wunjo Reversed or Merkstave: Stultification, sorrow, strife, alienation. Delirium, intoxication, possession by higher forces, impractical enthusiasm. Raging frenzy, berzerker.
Heimdahl's Aett
Hagalaz: (H: Hail.) Wrath of nature, destructive, uncontrolled forces, especially the weather, or within the unconscious. Tempering, testing, trial. Controlled crisis, leading to completion, inner harmony. Hagalaz Merkstave (Hagalaz cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Natural disaster, catastrophe. Stagnation, loss of power. Pain, loss, suffering, hardship, sickness, crisis.
Nauthiz: (N: Need.) Delays, restriction. Resistance leading to strength, innovation, need-fire (self-reliance). Distress, confusion, conflict, and the power of will to overcome them. Endurance, survival, determination. A time to exercise patience. Recognition of one's fate. Major self-initiated change. Face your fears. Nauthiz Reversed or Merkstave: Constraint of freedom, distress, toil, drudgery, laxity. Necessity, extremity, want, deprivation, starvation, need, poverty, emotional hunger.
Isa: (I: Ice.) A challenge or frustration. Psychological blocks to thought or activity, including grievances. Standstill, or a time to turn inward and wait for what is to come, or to seek clarity. This rune reinforces runes around it. Isa Merkstave (Isa cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Ego-mania, dullness, blindness, dissipation. Treachery, illusion, deceit, betrayal, guile, stealth, ambush, plots.
Jera: (J or Y: A year, a good harvest.) The results of earlier efforts are realized. A time of peace and happiness, fruitful season. It can break through stagnancy. Hopes and expectations of peace and prosperity. The promise of success earned. Life cycle, cyclical pattern of the universe. Everything changes, in its own time. Jera Merkstave (Jera cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Sudden setback, reversals. A major change, repetition, bad timing, poverty, conflict.
Eihwaz: (EI: Yew tree.) Strength, reliability, dependability, trustworthiness. Enlightenment, endurance. Defense, protection. The driving force to acquire, providing motivation and a sense of purpose. Indicates that you have set your sights on a reasonable target and can achieve your goals. An honest man who can be relied upon. Eihwaz Reversed or Merkstave: Confusion, destruction, dissatisfaction, weakness.
Perthro: (P: Lot cup, vagina.) Uncertain meaning, a secret matter, a mystery, hidden things and occult abilities. Initiation, knowledge of one's destiny, knowledge of future matters, determining the future or your path. Pertaining to things feminine, feminine mysteries including female fertility, and vagina. Good lot, fellowship and joy. Evolutionary change. Perthro Reversed or Merkstave: Addiction, stagnation, loneliness, malaise.
Algiz: (Z or -R: Elk, protection.) Protection, a shield. The protective urge to shelter oneself or others. Defense, warding off of evil, shield, guardian. Connection with the gods, awakening, higher life. It can be used to channel energies appropriately. Follow your instincts. Keep hold of success or maintain a position won or earned. Algiz Reversed: or Merkstave: Hidden danger, consumption by divine forces, loss of divine link. Taboo, warning, turning away, that which repels.
Sowilo: (S: The sun.) Success, goals achieved, honor. The life-force, health. A time when power will be available to you for positive changes in your life, victory, health, and success. Contact between the higher self and the unconscious. Wholeness, power, elemental force, sword of flame, cleansing fire. Sowilo Merkstave (Sowilo cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): False goals, bad counsel, false success, gullibility, loss of goals. Destruction, retribution, justice, casting down of vanity. Wrath of god.
Tyr's Aett
Tiwaz: (T: Tyr, the sky god.) Honor, justice, leadership and authority. Analysis, rationality. Knowing where one's true strengths lie. Willingness to self-sacrifice. Victory and success in any competition or in legal matters. Tiwaz Reversed or Merkstave: One's energy and creative flow are blocked. Mental paralysis, over-analysis, over-sacrifice, injustice, imbalance. Strife, war, conflict, failure in competition. Dwindling passion, difficulties in communication, and possibly separation.
Berkano: (B: Berchta, the birch-goddess.) Birth, general fertility, both mental and physical and personal growth, liberation. Regenerative power and light of spring, renewal, promise of new beginnings, new growth. Arousal of desire. A love affair or new birth. The prospering of an enterprise or venture. Berkano Reversed or Merkstave: Family problems and or domestic troubles. Anxiety about someone close to you. Carelessness, abandon, loss of control. Blurring of consciousness, deceit, sterility, stagnation.
Ehwaz: (E: Horse, two horses.) Transportation. May represent a horse, car, plane, boat or other vehicle. Movement and change for the better. Gradual development and steady progress are indicated. Harmony, teamwork, trust, loyalty. An ideal marriage or partnership. Confirmation beyond doubt the meanings of the runes around it. Ehwaz Reversed or Merkstave: This is not really a negative rune. A change is perhaps craved. Feeling restless or confined in a situation. Reckless haste, disharmony, mistrust, betrayal.
Mannaz: (M: Man, mankind.) The Self; the individual or the human race. Your attitude toward others and their attitudes towards you. Friends and enemies, social order. Intelligence, forethought, create, skill, ability. Divine structure, intelligence, awareness. Expect to receive some sort of aid or cooperation now. Mannaz Reversed or Merkstave: Depression, mortality, blindness, self-delusion. Cunning, slyness, manipulation, craftiness, calculation. Expect no help now.
Laguz: (L: Water, or a leek.) Flow, water, sea, a fertility source, the healing power of renewal. Life energy and organic growth. Imagination and psychic matters. Dreams, fantasies, mysteries, the unknown, the hidden, the deep, the underworld. Success in travel or acquisition, but with the possibility of loss. Laguz Reversed or Merkstave: An indication of a period of confusion in your life. You may be making wrong decisions and poor judgements. Lack of creativity and feelings of being in a rut. Fear, circular motion, avoidance, withering. Madness, obsession, despair, perversity, sickness, suicide.
Ingwaz: (NG: Ing, the earth god.) Male fertility, gestation, internal growth. Common virtues, common sense, simple strengths, family love, caring, human warmth, the home. Rest stage, a time of relief, of no anxiety. A time when all loose strings are tied and you are free to move in a new direction. Listen to yourself. Ingwaz Merkstave (Ingwaz cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Impotence, movement without change. Production, toil, labor, work.
Dagaz: (D: Day or dawn.) Breakthrough, awakening, awareness. Daylight clarity as opposed to nighttime uncertainty. A time to plan or embark upon an enterprise. The power of change directed by your own will, transformation. Hope/happiness, the ideal. Security and certainty. Growth and release. Balance point, the place where opposites meet. Dagaz Merkstave (Dagaz cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): A completion, ending, limit, coming full circle. Blindness, hopelessness.
Othala: (O: Ancestral property.) Inherited property or possessions, a house, a home. What is truly important to one. Group order, group prosperity. Land of birth, spiritual heritage, experience and fundamental values. Aid in spiritual and physical journeys. Source of safety, increase and abundance. Othala Reversed or Merkstave: Lack of customary order, totalitarianism, slavery, poverty, homelessness. Bad karma, prejudice, clannishness, provincialism. What a man is bound to.
Fehu (F: Domestic cattle, wealth.) Possessions won or earned, earned income, luck. Abundance, financial strength in the present or near future. Sign of hope and plenty, success and happiness. Social success. Energy, foresight, fertility, creation/destruction (becoming). Fehu Reversed or Merkstave: Loss of personal property, esteem, or something that you put in effort to keep. It indicates some sort of failure. Greed, burnout, atrophy, discord. Cowardice, stupidity, dullness, poverty, slavery, bondage.
Uruz: (U: Auroch, a wild ox.) Physical strength and speed, untamed potential. A time of great energy and health. Freedom, energy, action, courage, strength, tenacity, understanding, wisdom. Sudden or unexpected changes (usually for the better). Sexual desire, masculine potency. The shaping of power and pattern, formulation of the self. Uruz Reversed or Merkstave: Weakness, obsession, misdirected force, domination by others. Sickness, inconsistency, ignorance. Lust, brutality, rashness, callousness, violence.
Thurisaz: (TH: Thorn or a Giant.) Reactive force, directed force of destruction and defense, conflict. Instinctual will, vital eroticism, regenerative catalyst. A tendency toward change. Catharsis, purging, cleansing fire. Male sexuality, fertilization. (Thorr, the Thunder god, was of Giant stock.)Thurisaz Reversed or Merkstave: Danger, defenselessness, compulsion, betrayal, dullness. Evil, malice, hatred, torment, spite, lies. A bad man or woman. Rape?
Ansuz: (A: The As, ancestral god, i.e. Odin.) A revealing message or insight, communication. Signals, inspiration, enthusiasm, speech, true vision, power of words and naming. Blessings, the taking of advice. Good health, harmony, truth, wisdom. Ansuz Reversed or Merkstave: Misunderstanding, delusion, manipulation by others, boredom. Vanity and grandiloquence. (Odin is a mighty, but duplicitous god. He always has his own agenda.)
Raidho: (R: Wagon or chariot.) Travel, both in physical terms and those of lifestyle direction. A journey, vacation, relocation, evolution, change of place or setting. Seeing a larger perspective. Seeing the right move for you to make and deciding upon it. Personal rhythm, world rhythm, dance of life. Raidho Reversed or Merkstave: Crisis, rigidity, stasis, injustice, irrationality. Disruption, dislocation, demotion, delusion, possibly a death.
Kenaz: (K: Beacon or torch.) Vision, revelation, knowledge, creativity, inspiration, technical ability. Vital fire of life, harnessed power, fire of transformation and regeneration. Power to create your own reality, the power of light. Open to new strength, energy, and power now. Passion, sexual love. Kenaz Reversed or Merkstave: Disease, breakup, instability, lack of creativity. Nakedness, exposure, loss of illusion and false hope.
Gebo: (G: Gift.) Gifts, both in the sense of sacrifice and of generosity, indicating balance. All matters in relation to exchanges, including contracts, personal relationships and partnerships. Gebo Merkstave (Gebo cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Greed, loneliness, dependence, over-sacrifice. Obligation, toll, privation, bribery.
Wunjo: (W or V: Joy.) Joy, comfort, pleasure. Fellowship, harmony, prosperity. Ecstasy, glory, spiritual reward, but also the possibility of going "over the top". If restrained, the meaning is general success and recognition of worth. Wunjo Reversed or Merkstave: Stultification, sorrow, strife, alienation. Delirium, intoxication, possession by higher forces, impractical enthusiasm. Raging frenzy, berzerker.
Heimdahl's Aett
Hagalaz: (H: Hail.) Wrath of nature, destructive, uncontrolled forces, especially the weather, or within the unconscious. Tempering, testing, trial. Controlled crisis, leading to completion, inner harmony. Hagalaz Merkstave (Hagalaz cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Natural disaster, catastrophe. Stagnation, loss of power. Pain, loss, suffering, hardship, sickness, crisis.
Nauthiz: (N: Need.) Delays, restriction. Resistance leading to strength, innovation, need-fire (self-reliance). Distress, confusion, conflict, and the power of will to overcome them. Endurance, survival, determination. A time to exercise patience. Recognition of one's fate. Major self-initiated change. Face your fears. Nauthiz Reversed or Merkstave: Constraint of freedom, distress, toil, drudgery, laxity. Necessity, extremity, want, deprivation, starvation, need, poverty, emotional hunger.
Isa: (I: Ice.) A challenge or frustration. Psychological blocks to thought or activity, including grievances. Standstill, or a time to turn inward and wait for what is to come, or to seek clarity. This rune reinforces runes around it. Isa Merkstave (Isa cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Ego-mania, dullness, blindness, dissipation. Treachery, illusion, deceit, betrayal, guile, stealth, ambush, plots.
Jera: (J or Y: A year, a good harvest.) The results of earlier efforts are realized. A time of peace and happiness, fruitful season. It can break through stagnancy. Hopes and expectations of peace and prosperity. The promise of success earned. Life cycle, cyclical pattern of the universe. Everything changes, in its own time. Jera Merkstave (Jera cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Sudden setback, reversals. A major change, repetition, bad timing, poverty, conflict.
Eihwaz: (EI: Yew tree.) Strength, reliability, dependability, trustworthiness. Enlightenment, endurance. Defense, protection. The driving force to acquire, providing motivation and a sense of purpose. Indicates that you have set your sights on a reasonable target and can achieve your goals. An honest man who can be relied upon. Eihwaz Reversed or Merkstave: Confusion, destruction, dissatisfaction, weakness.
Perthro: (P: Lot cup, vagina.) Uncertain meaning, a secret matter, a mystery, hidden things and occult abilities. Initiation, knowledge of one's destiny, knowledge of future matters, determining the future or your path. Pertaining to things feminine, feminine mysteries including female fertility, and vagina. Good lot, fellowship and joy. Evolutionary change. Perthro Reversed or Merkstave: Addiction, stagnation, loneliness, malaise.
Algiz: (Z or -R: Elk, protection.) Protection, a shield. The protective urge to shelter oneself or others. Defense, warding off of evil, shield, guardian. Connection with the gods, awakening, higher life. It can be used to channel energies appropriately. Follow your instincts. Keep hold of success or maintain a position won or earned. Algiz Reversed: or Merkstave: Hidden danger, consumption by divine forces, loss of divine link. Taboo, warning, turning away, that which repels.
Sowilo: (S: The sun.) Success, goals achieved, honor. The life-force, health. A time when power will be available to you for positive changes in your life, victory, health, and success. Contact between the higher self and the unconscious. Wholeness, power, elemental force, sword of flame, cleansing fire. Sowilo Merkstave (Sowilo cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): False goals, bad counsel, false success, gullibility, loss of goals. Destruction, retribution, justice, casting down of vanity. Wrath of god.
Tyr's Aett
Tiwaz: (T: Tyr, the sky god.) Honor, justice, leadership and authority. Analysis, rationality. Knowing where one's true strengths lie. Willingness to self-sacrifice. Victory and success in any competition or in legal matters. Tiwaz Reversed or Merkstave: One's energy and creative flow are blocked. Mental paralysis, over-analysis, over-sacrifice, injustice, imbalance. Strife, war, conflict, failure in competition. Dwindling passion, difficulties in communication, and possibly separation.
Berkano: (B: Berchta, the birch-goddess.) Birth, general fertility, both mental and physical and personal growth, liberation. Regenerative power and light of spring, renewal, promise of new beginnings, new growth. Arousal of desire. A love affair or new birth. The prospering of an enterprise or venture. Berkano Reversed or Merkstave: Family problems and or domestic troubles. Anxiety about someone close to you. Carelessness, abandon, loss of control. Blurring of consciousness, deceit, sterility, stagnation.
Ehwaz: (E: Horse, two horses.) Transportation. May represent a horse, car, plane, boat or other vehicle. Movement and change for the better. Gradual development and steady progress are indicated. Harmony, teamwork, trust, loyalty. An ideal marriage or partnership. Confirmation beyond doubt the meanings of the runes around it. Ehwaz Reversed or Merkstave: This is not really a negative rune. A change is perhaps craved. Feeling restless or confined in a situation. Reckless haste, disharmony, mistrust, betrayal.
Mannaz: (M: Man, mankind.) The Self; the individual or the human race. Your attitude toward others and their attitudes towards you. Friends and enemies, social order. Intelligence, forethought, create, skill, ability. Divine structure, intelligence, awareness. Expect to receive some sort of aid or cooperation now. Mannaz Reversed or Merkstave: Depression, mortality, blindness, self-delusion. Cunning, slyness, manipulation, craftiness, calculation. Expect no help now.
Laguz: (L: Water, or a leek.) Flow, water, sea, a fertility source, the healing power of renewal. Life energy and organic growth. Imagination and psychic matters. Dreams, fantasies, mysteries, the unknown, the hidden, the deep, the underworld. Success in travel or acquisition, but with the possibility of loss. Laguz Reversed or Merkstave: An indication of a period of confusion in your life. You may be making wrong decisions and poor judgements. Lack of creativity and feelings of being in a rut. Fear, circular motion, avoidance, withering. Madness, obsession, despair, perversity, sickness, suicide.
Ingwaz: (NG: Ing, the earth god.) Male fertility, gestation, internal growth. Common virtues, common sense, simple strengths, family love, caring, human warmth, the home. Rest stage, a time of relief, of no anxiety. A time when all loose strings are tied and you are free to move in a new direction. Listen to yourself. Ingwaz Merkstave (Ingwaz cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): Impotence, movement without change. Production, toil, labor, work.
Dagaz: (D: Day or dawn.) Breakthrough, awakening, awareness. Daylight clarity as opposed to nighttime uncertainty. A time to plan or embark upon an enterprise. The power of change directed by your own will, transformation. Hope/happiness, the ideal. Security and certainty. Growth and release. Balance point, the place where opposites meet. Dagaz Merkstave (Dagaz cannot be reversed, but may lie in opposition): A completion, ending, limit, coming full circle. Blindness, hopelessness.
Othala: (O: Ancestral property.) Inherited property or possessions, a house, a home. What is truly important to one. Group order, group prosperity. Land of birth, spiritual heritage, experience and fundamental values. Aid in spiritual and physical journeys. Source of safety, increase and abundance. Othala Reversed or Merkstave: Lack of customary order, totalitarianism, slavery, poverty, homelessness. Bad karma, prejudice, clannishness, provincialism. What a man is bound to.
The ancient Germanic Runic alphabet and RunestonesThe ancient Germanic Runic alphabet and Runestones, their possible civilization origins,
and their historic influence by James Mayfield (Chairman, European Heritage Library)
Most of our information on the early religious culture and use of Runes among the ancient Germans come from Medieval Iceland. Christian skalds and poets like Snorri Sturlusson (1178-1241) offer our best source material that allow us to reconstruct this early Germanic cultural orbit. To read an introduction to the Edda (an early Icelandic source), read our article on Sources on pre-Christian Germanic/Norse religion.
Most of our information on the early religious culture and use of Runes among the ancient Germans come from Medieval Iceland. Christian skalds and poets like Snorri Sturlusson (1178-1241) offer our best source material that allow us to reconstruct this early Germanic cultural orbit. To read an introduction to the Edda (an early Icelandic source), read our article on Sources on pre-Christian Germanic/Norse religion.
A post-Christian Icelandic manuscript depicting Thor fishing for Loki's son, the Jormungänger serpent
and their historic influence by James Mayfield (Chairman, European Heritage Library)
Most of our information on the early religious culture and use of Runes among the ancient Germans come from Medieval Iceland. Christian skalds and poets like Snorri Sturlusson (1178-1241) offer our best source material that allow us to reconstruct this early Germanic cultural orbit. To read an introduction to the Edda (an early Icelandic source), read our article on Sources on pre-Christian Germanic/Norse religion.
Most of our information on the early religious culture and use of Runes among the ancient Germans come from Medieval Iceland. Christian skalds and poets like Snorri Sturlusson (1178-1241) offer our best source material that allow us to reconstruct this early Germanic cultural orbit. To read an introduction to the Edda (an early Icelandic source), read our article on Sources on pre-Christian Germanic/Norse religion.
A post-Christian Icelandic manuscript depicting Thor fishing for Loki's son, the Jormungänger serpent
The Stavkirke (Stave-Church) is the equivalent of a composite Christian-Odinic church. Previously crude temples depicted in the Icelandic sagas included altars for icons of Freyjr and Odin, and evolved with the adoption of Christendom to become a uniquely Scandinavian architecture that retained traces of the Odinic past. They are national monuments that can be seen all throughout Scandinavia. Primitive churches have been found in Russia, Ukraine, and Germany. Most German ones were probably destroyed by Christians since Germany quickly became the superpower of the Christian world by the 11th century.
The Runic alphabet, the Runes' meanings, and spiritual significance (divination):
The Runic alphabet was used as a formal system of writing in England, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Germany, and the Baltic. There seems to have been a universal standard for writing the Runic alphabet. Carved or written by diverse authors and travelers from different backgrounds, all Runic inscriptions have an incredibly similar alphabet foundation whether in Estonia or Ireland. This is perplexing given that when the Runic alphabet was first used (2nd century CE), historians have been unable to locate a major political hegemon that was able to formalize this system of writing all across Northern Europe. The circumstances under which Runic inscriptions occurred were, however, mostly informal, and were ostensibly intended to announce the presence of various Viking chiefs and maritime travelers in the region. Other Runic writings tell elaborate and resplendent tales of mythology and history with poetic formality. The presence of a system of writing that was widespread throughout this large geographic area leads one to question the notion of early Germanic barbarism.
Although slight variations in the appearance of the Runic alphabet evolved over the centuries, a formal written standard has been isolated. It is an incredibly practical script that can be easily used and learned by laymen to write the many sounds of the proto-German language. Some forms of "short-hand" and more informal Runic writing have also been found across wide ranges. The greatest diversity in Runic alphabets exists in Sweden. The Runic alphabet is often called “Fuþark” (pronounced FOO-Tark) because of the Runes that are usually treated as the first letters of the alphabet (F, U, Th, A, R, K). The so-called “Elder Fuþark” that was more prevalent in Scandinavia seems to have been used mostly by educated aristocrats and grandees in the early centuries after Christ, whilst “Younger Fuþark” became popularized later during the Viking period. Nearly all of the regional variants of Runic are nearly mutually intelligible, intimating a high level of shared development of the script across the Germanic world.
Although Runic was phased out during the process of Christianization and the proliferation of a Latin-based system of writing among the Germanic peoples, the Runes themselves survived even outside of Scandinavia. The Icelandic alphabet today still uses the ancient Rune of Thor in their "th" sound (þ), as did Anglo-Saxon (Old English) for many centuries after the Germanic Anglo-Saxons settled England. The first written language of the Germans after Runic has been traced to the Gothic Alphabet, invented by the Gothic German priest Ulfilas in the 4th century. His invented alphabet, intended to initiate the conversion of the Odinist Goths to Christendom for reading the Bible, was a meticulous mixing of Greek letters and Runes. The fact that the Goths, who lived in southern Germany and the northwestern Balkans, used the almost identical Runic writing as the Norwegians and Swedes implies that the ancient barbaric Germans expressed a greater manifestation of civilization than is popularly believed.
The Runic alphabet, the Runes' meanings, and spiritual significance (divination):
The Runic alphabet was used as a formal system of writing in England, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Germany, and the Baltic. There seems to have been a universal standard for writing the Runic alphabet. Carved or written by diverse authors and travelers from different backgrounds, all Runic inscriptions have an incredibly similar alphabet foundation whether in Estonia or Ireland. This is perplexing given that when the Runic alphabet was first used (2nd century CE), historians have been unable to locate a major political hegemon that was able to formalize this system of writing all across Northern Europe. The circumstances under which Runic inscriptions occurred were, however, mostly informal, and were ostensibly intended to announce the presence of various Viking chiefs and maritime travelers in the region. Other Runic writings tell elaborate and resplendent tales of mythology and history with poetic formality. The presence of a system of writing that was widespread throughout this large geographic area leads one to question the notion of early Germanic barbarism.
Although slight variations in the appearance of the Runic alphabet evolved over the centuries, a formal written standard has been isolated. It is an incredibly practical script that can be easily used and learned by laymen to write the many sounds of the proto-German language. Some forms of "short-hand" and more informal Runic writing have also been found across wide ranges. The greatest diversity in Runic alphabets exists in Sweden. The Runic alphabet is often called “Fuþark” (pronounced FOO-Tark) because of the Runes that are usually treated as the first letters of the alphabet (F, U, Th, A, R, K). The so-called “Elder Fuþark” that was more prevalent in Scandinavia seems to have been used mostly by educated aristocrats and grandees in the early centuries after Christ, whilst “Younger Fuþark” became popularized later during the Viking period. Nearly all of the regional variants of Runic are nearly mutually intelligible, intimating a high level of shared development of the script across the Germanic world.
Although Runic was phased out during the process of Christianization and the proliferation of a Latin-based system of writing among the Germanic peoples, the Runes themselves survived even outside of Scandinavia. The Icelandic alphabet today still uses the ancient Rune of Thor in their "th" sound (þ), as did Anglo-Saxon (Old English) for many centuries after the Germanic Anglo-Saxons settled England. The first written language of the Germans after Runic has been traced to the Gothic Alphabet, invented by the Gothic German priest Ulfilas in the 4th century. His invented alphabet, intended to initiate the conversion of the Odinist Goths to Christendom for reading the Bible, was a meticulous mixing of Greek letters and Runes. The fact that the Goths, who lived in southern Germany and the northwestern Balkans, used the almost identical Runic writing as the Norwegians and Swedes implies that the ancient barbaric Germans expressed a greater manifestation of civilization than is popularly believed.
In some cases, the individual Runes themselves were attributed with religious significance or representation. This springs from the fact that the Runes were believed to have been conceived by the “High One” Odin himself with specific religious and ritual attributes. Unfortunately, with the growth of modern “pagan” and “New Age” movements that derive many of their myths from ancient Germanic religion have devised elaborate emotional and cosmic effects that are imbued upon each Rune with no historical legitimacy whatsoever. Historians and anthropologists have been unable to determine a traditional significance to each Rune. It is likely that worshippers employed ad hoc ritual significance to Runes when necessary. For example, if a charismatic myth circulated in a region that the god of fertility Freyjr bestowed a great harvest, a mystic may then rely upon the Rune of Freyjr to propitiate famine. In the following village, if Freyjr were extolled for granting a bounty of children, a worshipper may use the same Rune for that very different attribute. Therefore, it is difficult to describe the spiritual significance of each Rune. What can most likely be agreed on is that letters of the Runic alphabet that corresponded to the first letters of gods' names almost always referred to those gods. The "O" letter always refers to Odin, whilst the "Th" always to Thor. Only in the Edda, our major source of pre-Christian pan-Germanic religion, do we see verbose descriptions on Runes and their meanings from the mouth of Odin himself (or the pen of Snorri Sturlusson) in the chapter "Havamal" (Words of the High One):
“Runes you will find, and readable staves,
Very strong staves,
Very stout staves,
Staves that Bolthor stained,
Made by mighty powers,
Graven by the prophetic God.
[...]
The first charm I know is unknown to rulers
Or any of human kind;
Help it is named,
for help it can give
In hours of sorrow and anguish.
I know a second that the sons of men
Must learn who wish to be leeches.
I know a third: in the thick of battle,
If my need be great enough,
It will blunt the edges of enemy swords,
Their weapons will make no wounds.
I know a fourth:
it will free me quickly
If foes should bind me fast
With strong chains, a chant that makes
Fetters spring from the feet,
Bonds burst from the hands.
I know a fifth: no flying arrow,
Aimed to bring harm to men,
Flies too fast for my fingers to catch it
And hold it in mid-air.
I know a sixth:
It will save me if a man
Cut runes on a sapling' s roots
With intent to harm; it turns the spell;
The hater is harmed, not me.
If I see the hall
Ablaze around my bench mates,
Though hot the flames,
They shall feel nothing,
If I choose to chant the spell.
I know an eighth:
That all are glad of,
Most useful to men:
If hate fester in the heart of a warrior,
It will soon calm and cure him.
I know a ninth:
When need I have
To shelter my ship on the flood,
The wind it calms, the waves it smoothes
And puts the sea to sleep
I know a tenth:
If troublesome ghosts
Ride the rafters aloft,
I can work it so they wander astray,
Unable to find their forms,
Unable to find their homes.
I know an eleventh:
When I lead to battle old comrades in-arms,
I have only to chant it behind my shield,
And unwounded they go to war,
Unwounded they come from war,
Unscathed wherever they are
I know a twelfth:
If a tree bear
A man hanged in a halter,
I can carve and stain strong runes
That will cause the corpse to speak,
Reply to whatever I ask.
I know a thirteenth
If I throw a cup of water over a warrior,
He shall not fall in the fiercest battle,
Nor sink beneath the sword,
I know a fourteenth, that few know:
If I tell a troop of warriors
About the high ones, Elves and Gods,
I can name them one by one.
I know a fifteenth,
That first Thjodrerir
Sang before Delling's doors,
Giving power to Gods, prowess to Elves,
Fore-sight to Hroptatyr Odin,
I know a sixteenth:
If I see a girl
With whom it would please me to play,
I can turn her thoughts, can touch the heart
Of any white armed woman.
I know a seventeenth:
If I sing it,
The young girl will be slow to forsake me.
I know an eighteenth that I never tell
To maiden or wife of man,
A secret I hide from all
Except the love who lies in my arms,
Or else my own sister (“Havamal”, Nordic Edda)
Note that nowhere else in the ancient Germanic textual sources do we see specific significance being connected with specific Runes. It is inevitable that Runes were engraved upon bones, wood, stones, and gems and used by Odinic shamans and priests for religious purposes. Clearing evil spirits, endowing divine protection from the war gods Thor and Tyr, propitiating the gods' rage, and predicting an uncertain future are typical. Fertility rites were also important among all early societies, and many of the Runes seem to have had fertility purposes. Much of the religiosity in Scandinavia, as reported to us by Adam von Bremen (an Anglo-Saxon Christian), centered around fertility cults of Freyjr and Freyja. It can be assumed that fertility Runes were likely placed on personal altars and shrines in private homes prior to intercourse to maximize chances of conception.
One interesting feature of the Runic alphabet is that most of the major German pantheonic gods had their own Runes. Odin had the Othala/Odal Rune for the letter “O,” Thor the Thorn (Þ,þ) for the sound “Th,” Tyr the “T,” and Baldur, Freyjr, and Heimdal may have had the “B,” “F,” and “H,” respectively. It is likely that these religious symbols were designed before the formal alphabet was developed for writing, and the writing system developed from these unique symbols. Predictably, the Runes were used to channel the divine favor and blessings of the particular gods when their specific functions became needed (in times of war, conception, studies, etc.). Although today an Asatru convert may find charts of exact symbolic meanings of each Rune on various New Age websites, it is impossible to know the exact historical significance of each of the Runes or how they evolved.
“Runes you will find, and readable staves,
Very strong staves,
Very stout staves,
Staves that Bolthor stained,
Made by mighty powers,
Graven by the prophetic God.
[...]
The first charm I know is unknown to rulers
Or any of human kind;
Help it is named,
for help it can give
In hours of sorrow and anguish.
I know a second that the sons of men
Must learn who wish to be leeches.
I know a third: in the thick of battle,
If my need be great enough,
It will blunt the edges of enemy swords,
Their weapons will make no wounds.
I know a fourth:
it will free me quickly
If foes should bind me fast
With strong chains, a chant that makes
Fetters spring from the feet,
Bonds burst from the hands.
I know a fifth: no flying arrow,
Aimed to bring harm to men,
Flies too fast for my fingers to catch it
And hold it in mid-air.
I know a sixth:
It will save me if a man
Cut runes on a sapling' s roots
With intent to harm; it turns the spell;
The hater is harmed, not me.
If I see the hall
Ablaze around my bench mates,
Though hot the flames,
They shall feel nothing,
If I choose to chant the spell.
I know an eighth:
That all are glad of,
Most useful to men:
If hate fester in the heart of a warrior,
It will soon calm and cure him.
I know a ninth:
When need I have
To shelter my ship on the flood,
The wind it calms, the waves it smoothes
And puts the sea to sleep
I know a tenth:
If troublesome ghosts
Ride the rafters aloft,
I can work it so they wander astray,
Unable to find their forms,
Unable to find their homes.
I know an eleventh:
When I lead to battle old comrades in-arms,
I have only to chant it behind my shield,
And unwounded they go to war,
Unwounded they come from war,
Unscathed wherever they are
I know a twelfth:
If a tree bear
A man hanged in a halter,
I can carve and stain strong runes
That will cause the corpse to speak,
Reply to whatever I ask.
I know a thirteenth
If I throw a cup of water over a warrior,
He shall not fall in the fiercest battle,
Nor sink beneath the sword,
I know a fourteenth, that few know:
If I tell a troop of warriors
About the high ones, Elves and Gods,
I can name them one by one.
I know a fifteenth,
That first Thjodrerir
Sang before Delling's doors,
Giving power to Gods, prowess to Elves,
Fore-sight to Hroptatyr Odin,
I know a sixteenth:
If I see a girl
With whom it would please me to play,
I can turn her thoughts, can touch the heart
Of any white armed woman.
I know a seventeenth:
If I sing it,
The young girl will be slow to forsake me.
I know an eighteenth that I never tell
To maiden or wife of man,
A secret I hide from all
Except the love who lies in my arms,
Or else my own sister (“Havamal”, Nordic Edda)
Note that nowhere else in the ancient Germanic textual sources do we see specific significance being connected with specific Runes. It is inevitable that Runes were engraved upon bones, wood, stones, and gems and used by Odinic shamans and priests for religious purposes. Clearing evil spirits, endowing divine protection from the war gods Thor and Tyr, propitiating the gods' rage, and predicting an uncertain future are typical. Fertility rites were also important among all early societies, and many of the Runes seem to have had fertility purposes. Much of the religiosity in Scandinavia, as reported to us by Adam von Bremen (an Anglo-Saxon Christian), centered around fertility cults of Freyjr and Freyja. It can be assumed that fertility Runes were likely placed on personal altars and shrines in private homes prior to intercourse to maximize chances of conception.
One interesting feature of the Runic alphabet is that most of the major German pantheonic gods had their own Runes. Odin had the Othala/Odal Rune for the letter “O,” Thor the Thorn (Þ,þ) for the sound “Th,” Tyr the “T,” and Baldur, Freyjr, and Heimdal may have had the “B,” “F,” and “H,” respectively. It is likely that these religious symbols were designed before the formal alphabet was developed for writing, and the writing system developed from these unique symbols. Predictably, the Runes were used to channel the divine favor and blessings of the particular gods when their specific functions became needed (in times of war, conception, studies, etc.). Although today an Asatru convert may find charts of exact symbolic meanings of each Rune on various New Age websites, it is impossible to know the exact historical significance of each of the Runes or how they evolved.
Possible origins of the Runic alphabet in relation to other civilizations:
Historians have difficulty tracing the Runic alphabet back to its origins. It is likely that Runic inscriptions go back at least a century or more than the available evidence we have found so far due to the fact that most inscriptions were probably written on perishable wood (which was considered holy) or even written in the dirt as a vehicle for connecting with nature and the earth. It is also likely that the "Runic alphabet" actually was first used at least a century after the Runes themselves were invented. In other words, the significance and meaning of Runes may have been simply transferred from religious purposes to writing as settled civilizations developed in Scandinavia. Historians have been able to trace the earliest available forms of Runic writing to the 3rd century, at least 250CE [1]. Other sources trace them back at least a century prior [2]. Elaborate and artistic Runic inscriptions with an intelligible meaning can be found on the resplendent Gallehus horns of 4th or 5th century Denmark that say, "I Hlegast, son of Holt, made this horn."
Historians have had difficulty determining which culture created the writing system and whether or not it derived from the vulgar Latin writing of the Roman Empire. Previously, most scholars readily assumed that the alphabet derived from Latin. Surely, some letters have a similar appearance. One salient scholar traces only four Runes to a possible Latin origin, but determines that the Runic alphabet is not merely a Roman import or derived from Latin because the other twelve Runes have absolutely no connection to symbols outside of the Germanic culture [3]. Scholars also point out that almost no use of Runes existed in southern Germany -- where cultural contacts with the Romans were more frequent -- until centuries after it had long achieved relative formality in Scandinavia [4]. As a result, the Runic alphabet is entirely an invention of the Germanic cultures independent of Roman civilization. It is possible to argue that Runes were later influenced by Latin as trade networks expanded between Germany and Rome, but this argument is hindered by the fact that very few reforms occurred on Runic over the centuries that had any increasing resemblance to Latin. For these reasons, it seems that Runic was invented almost spontaneously outside of the empire's reaches.
Most Runes have been traced to Sweden, where an eclectic array of simplified forms percolated throughout Denmark and Norway. Due to this frequency, it is likely that the original Runic standard was invented in Sweden. The originator is not known. According to the theory of euhemerism, mythological tales and figures derive at least partially from historic fact. For example, Odin may have been a legitimate historical chieftain in ancient Scandinavia or Germany who, upon his death, became deified as a god much like Alexander the Great and Octavian were. Since the Edda sources attribute the creation of Runes to Odin (see above), it is theoretically possible that at least the foundations of Runes may have been developed by an ancient Swedish chieftain identified as Odin. This, of course, is pure theory that cannot be proven or disproven. Additionally, there seems to have been a far greater veneration of the wise god Odin in Sweden and Scandinavia than in Germany, where the god of war Tyr was the primary target of worship. This amplified focus on the characteristics of wisdom, knowledge, and Runes in Sweden may imply that Sweden possessed a nascent and primitive form of a literary and developed community from which Runes emanated throughout Northern Europe with the historic human Odin as its legitimate ancestor. This possibility is strengthened by many ancient sources' depictions of huge centers of pilgrimage and worship with elaborate hierarchies, rituals, and gold-swaddled temples with a priestly cast of Godis (Odinic priests), especially in the Swedish temple of Uppsala. This may have been the birthplace of the Germanic peoples' independent system of writing.
Historians have difficulty tracing the Runic alphabet back to its origins. It is likely that Runic inscriptions go back at least a century or more than the available evidence we have found so far due to the fact that most inscriptions were probably written on perishable wood (which was considered holy) or even written in the dirt as a vehicle for connecting with nature and the earth. It is also likely that the "Runic alphabet" actually was first used at least a century after the Runes themselves were invented. In other words, the significance and meaning of Runes may have been simply transferred from religious purposes to writing as settled civilizations developed in Scandinavia. Historians have been able to trace the earliest available forms of Runic writing to the 3rd century, at least 250CE [1]. Other sources trace them back at least a century prior [2]. Elaborate and artistic Runic inscriptions with an intelligible meaning can be found on the resplendent Gallehus horns of 4th or 5th century Denmark that say, "I Hlegast, son of Holt, made this horn."
Historians have had difficulty determining which culture created the writing system and whether or not it derived from the vulgar Latin writing of the Roman Empire. Previously, most scholars readily assumed that the alphabet derived from Latin. Surely, some letters have a similar appearance. One salient scholar traces only four Runes to a possible Latin origin, but determines that the Runic alphabet is not merely a Roman import or derived from Latin because the other twelve Runes have absolutely no connection to symbols outside of the Germanic culture [3]. Scholars also point out that almost no use of Runes existed in southern Germany -- where cultural contacts with the Romans were more frequent -- until centuries after it had long achieved relative formality in Scandinavia [4]. As a result, the Runic alphabet is entirely an invention of the Germanic cultures independent of Roman civilization. It is possible to argue that Runes were later influenced by Latin as trade networks expanded between Germany and Rome, but this argument is hindered by the fact that very few reforms occurred on Runic over the centuries that had any increasing resemblance to Latin. For these reasons, it seems that Runic was invented almost spontaneously outside of the empire's reaches.
Most Runes have been traced to Sweden, where an eclectic array of simplified forms percolated throughout Denmark and Norway. Due to this frequency, it is likely that the original Runic standard was invented in Sweden. The originator is not known. According to the theory of euhemerism, mythological tales and figures derive at least partially from historic fact. For example, Odin may have been a legitimate historical chieftain in ancient Scandinavia or Germany who, upon his death, became deified as a god much like Alexander the Great and Octavian were. Since the Edda sources attribute the creation of Runes to Odin (see above), it is theoretically possible that at least the foundations of Runes may have been developed by an ancient Swedish chieftain identified as Odin. This, of course, is pure theory that cannot be proven or disproven. Additionally, there seems to have been a far greater veneration of the wise god Odin in Sweden and Scandinavia than in Germany, where the god of war Tyr was the primary target of worship. This amplified focus on the characteristics of wisdom, knowledge, and Runes in Sweden may imply that Sweden possessed a nascent and primitive form of a literary and developed community from which Runes emanated throughout Northern Europe with the historic human Odin as its legitimate ancestor. This possibility is strengthened by many ancient sources' depictions of huge centers of pilgrimage and worship with elaborate hierarchies, rituals, and gold-swaddled temples with a priestly cast of Godis (Odinic priests), especially in the Swedish temple of Uppsala. This may have been the birthplace of the Germanic peoples' independent system of writing.
An early illustration of Adam von Bremen's report of Odinic sacrifice in Uppsala, Sweden
Some Runic letters do bear mysterious similiarity to other systems of writing in the ancient world. This is in part because stone and wood only allow very simple and straight lines due to the difficulty of etching or carving curved symbols. Only on paper and papyrus, written in China and Egypt respectively, were scripts of very curved and ornate forms possible. As a result, many of these societies that only used stone or wood will inherently have similar-looking writing systems. Therefore, the fact that the letters of remote Central Asia (Orkhon "Runes") and the Hungarian Runes from the far away Ural mountains look similar to Germanic Runic is likely inconsequential.
Another major theory that the Germanic Runic writing system derived from other written civilizations is that of the North Italic peoples. The ancient Etruscans and other Italian tribes in the north of Italy had written languages and elaborate cultures that predated the foundations of the Roman Republic. Most scholars who aver that the German Runes derived from foreign origin consider the North Italic scripts to be the likely source. One scholar believes that any partial derivation from North Italic letters to a new German form must have occurred in the first centuries BCE before being taken north by the Cimbri and Teutones back to Denmark [7]. It is impossible or impossible to disprove this. However, it is unlikely to be the case because of a variety of factors: 1) most North Italic scripts were relatively phased out by the time of the creation of the Runic alphabet, and what little remained were largely subsumed under the Latin-writing Roman hegemon; 2) Runes appear hundreds of kilometers away in Scandinavia centuries before they appear anywhere near Italy; 3) the Etruscans and North Italic tribes, who wrote on stone, were limited in the angles and shapes of letters they could produce in the same way that the Germans were, and thus inevitably looked similar. In addition, only very few of the Runic letters have any similarity to the German ones. As a result, it seems again likely that the Germanic Runes were an independent invention of relatively spontaneous origin.
Another strange phenomenon is the existence of the so-called “Hungarian Runes.” The Hungarians (Magyars) migrated from central Russia/the Urals from the 9th century onward into the Hungarian Steppe of Central Europe, and their origin has been highly speculated. Their system of writing appears to have been a script strikingly similar to Germanic Runes. Upon their king Istvan's conversion to Catholicism in the 11th century, all of their pre-Christian "Runic" alphabet was abolished in favor of the Latin script. It is possible that the Hungarians borrowed this writing system from stateless German settlers or villagers east of Germany who they met on their eventual fateful way to Hungary. So too, the pagan Hungarians were one of the most contumacious and assiduous rivals of unified Germany (the First Reich) under King Heinrich the Fowler and Kaiser Otto the Great of the 10th and 11th centuries, the latter having obliterated their armies at Lechfeld. This may imply a possible contact between the two civilizations by which Germanic Runes spread to the Hungarians, who created a Hungarian analogue. This is, of course, purely theoretical. The similarities may be entirely coincidence. What is certain is that the German Runes did not derive from the Hungarian "Runes" due to the fact that the German writing system predates the Hungarian migrations towards Germany by over 400 years.
Some Runic letters do bear mysterious similiarity to other systems of writing in the ancient world. This is in part because stone and wood only allow very simple and straight lines due to the difficulty of etching or carving curved symbols. Only on paper and papyrus, written in China and Egypt respectively, were scripts of very curved and ornate forms possible. As a result, many of these societies that only used stone or wood will inherently have similar-looking writing systems. Therefore, the fact that the letters of remote Central Asia (Orkhon "Runes") and the Hungarian Runes from the far away Ural mountains look similar to Germanic Runic is likely inconsequential.
Another major theory that the Germanic Runic writing system derived from other written civilizations is that of the North Italic peoples. The ancient Etruscans and other Italian tribes in the north of Italy had written languages and elaborate cultures that predated the foundations of the Roman Republic. Most scholars who aver that the German Runes derived from foreign origin consider the North Italic scripts to be the likely source. One scholar believes that any partial derivation from North Italic letters to a new German form must have occurred in the first centuries BCE before being taken north by the Cimbri and Teutones back to Denmark [7]. It is impossible or impossible to disprove this. However, it is unlikely to be the case because of a variety of factors: 1) most North Italic scripts were relatively phased out by the time of the creation of the Runic alphabet, and what little remained were largely subsumed under the Latin-writing Roman hegemon; 2) Runes appear hundreds of kilometers away in Scandinavia centuries before they appear anywhere near Italy; 3) the Etruscans and North Italic tribes, who wrote on stone, were limited in the angles and shapes of letters they could produce in the same way that the Germans were, and thus inevitably looked similar. In addition, only very few of the Runic letters have any similarity to the German ones. As a result, it seems again likely that the Germanic Runes were an independent invention of relatively spontaneous origin.
Another strange phenomenon is the existence of the so-called “Hungarian Runes.” The Hungarians (Magyars) migrated from central Russia/the Urals from the 9th century onward into the Hungarian Steppe of Central Europe, and their origin has been highly speculated. Their system of writing appears to have been a script strikingly similar to Germanic Runes. Upon their king Istvan's conversion to Catholicism in the 11th century, all of their pre-Christian "Runic" alphabet was abolished in favor of the Latin script. It is possible that the Hungarians borrowed this writing system from stateless German settlers or villagers east of Germany who they met on their eventual fateful way to Hungary. So too, the pagan Hungarians were one of the most contumacious and assiduous rivals of unified Germany (the First Reich) under King Heinrich the Fowler and Kaiser Otto the Great of the 10th and 11th centuries, the latter having obliterated their armies at Lechfeld. This may imply a possible contact between the two civilizations by which Germanic Runes spread to the Hungarians, who created a Hungarian analogue. This is, of course, purely theoretical. The similarities may be entirely coincidence. What is certain is that the German Runes did not derive from the Hungarian "Runes" due to the fact that the German writing system predates the Hungarian migrations towards Germany by over 400 years.
So-called Hungarian and Etruscan Runes. Etruscan is similar to Runic only in the superficial appearance. Few commonalities can be drawn to Runic. Hungarian Runes, however, are strikingly similar in many ways that make it arguable that Hungarians borrowed an alphabet from the Germans when settling in Central Europe. Because Germanic Runes existed long before Hungarian migration, it cannot be such that Germans borrowed from Hungarians. Note that only a few Etruscan letters are shown here because Etruscan is still untranslatable, and many symbols are used for many different sounds.
There is another theory for the origin of both Runic and Hungarian Runes referred to as “Orkhon Runes” or Central Asian Turkic Runes. 7th-century inscriptions have been found throughout western Mongolia and Siberia with bizarrely familiar symbols that are common to German and Hungarian Runes. The Life Rune, the Swastika, and even the distinctly Germanic Othala Rune of Odin seem to have been used in Central Asia as well. These Runes probably belong to the Turkic populations west of Mongolia, and were likely borrowed from the earlier Sodgian alphabet of their Iranian predecessors. Although it is reasonable to believe that early Turkic and Iranian peoples had contact with Germanic peoples, the fact that the earliest Turkic or Central Asian Runes date from the 9th century – nearly a thousand years after German Runes were being developed – implies that the Germanic Runes are unrelated. It is unusual that the Othala Rune, a very uniquely German symbol, would appear in the desolate plains of the east thousands of miles away, but it is likely no more than coincidence as proven by the independent appearance of the Swastika all over the world's ancient cultures.
See these articles written by a Turkish historian claiming that many Germanic Runestones and inscriptions were actually of Central Asian Turkic origin, emphasizing a supposed link between the two ethnos: [1] [2] (Thanks to Murat Sezen)
There is another theory for the origin of both Runic and Hungarian Runes referred to as “Orkhon Runes” or Central Asian Turkic Runes. 7th-century inscriptions have been found throughout western Mongolia and Siberia with bizarrely familiar symbols that are common to German and Hungarian Runes. The Life Rune, the Swastika, and even the distinctly Germanic Othala Rune of Odin seem to have been used in Central Asia as well. These Runes probably belong to the Turkic populations west of Mongolia, and were likely borrowed from the earlier Sodgian alphabet of their Iranian predecessors. Although it is reasonable to believe that early Turkic and Iranian peoples had contact with Germanic peoples, the fact that the earliest Turkic or Central Asian Runes date from the 9th century – nearly a thousand years after German Runes were being developed – implies that the Germanic Runes are unrelated. It is unusual that the Othala Rune, a very uniquely German symbol, would appear in the desolate plains of the east thousands of miles away, but it is likely no more than coincidence as proven by the independent appearance of the Swastika all over the world's ancient cultures.
See these articles written by a Turkish historian claiming that many Germanic Runestones and inscriptions were actually of Central Asian Turkic origin, emphasizing a supposed link between the two ethnos: [1] [2] (Thanks to Murat Sezen)
Orkhon Runes from Central Asia, which are likely Turkic instead of Mongol design and derived from Iranian Sogdian script, has the most similarities to Germanic Runes next to Hungarian Runes. The Life Rune and the Odin Rune are both present.
Runestones throughout the world:
Runestones are large stone landmarks and way-signs engraved with Runic inscriptions that date back over 1,500 years. Typically, metal and stone tools were used to carve indentations into the rock face, and paint or dye was smeared into the recesses to leave a lasting imprint. A major problem with evidence is that thousands of Runestones were destroyed for their pagan, non-Christian roots by the Christian authorities of Olaf Tryggvasson of Norway and other proponents of the new faith in Scandinavia. So too, the very wet, damp climate of Scandinavia makes seaside stones with Runic inscriptions prone to moss and fungus growth that quickly erases the Runes. Many Runestones have been discovered by accident near private homes. As a result, evidence important to historians may exist of which we are as yet unaware. We may therefore never know exactly how developed, civilized, and literate German societies were prior to the adoption of Christendom.
Predictably, the history of prolific conquest in the Viking age saw the spread of the Runic alphabet and Runic inscriptions throughout the non-Germanic world. Runestones have been found in France, Ireland, Scotland, the Baltic, and may have even spread to Russia and the Middle East, where Vikings traded with native peoples and probably exchanged “useless” Runic-inscribed artisanry for goods. The vast majority of Runestones outside the Germanic world date from the 7th-10th centuries, precisely the Viking Age that ended with the Christianization of Scandinavia (the last Germanic region to be converted). It is possible that Vikings left Runic inscriptions in Canada, where Vikings were the first modern Europeans to discover the New World (500 years before Columbus). Some monuments in Minnesota and the American Northeast claim to have ancient Runic artifacts, but this is largely assumed to be a farce. Since Germanic settlement in North America was so brief and ephemeral, it is unlikely that Vikings struggling to survive would take the time to write elaborate historical documents on Runestones. However, Iceland, from which the Nordic settlers in America came on their way from Greenland to Canada, were among the most literate of the Germanic peoples in Runic and in Odinic religious tradition. As a result, many Runic relics invaluable to our understanding of ancient Germanic culture is likely lost.
Most Runestones are very simple, and include imagery such as ships, animals, hunting rites, and only a few actual Runes. Most do not actually include any actual message whatsoever in the Runic alphabet. Instead, they include individual Runes intended to honor specific gods (such as Odin or Thor) or to channel the spiritual significance of each Rune (such as protection or reinforcing the king's authority). Some Runestones in Sweden especially have elaborate poetry and stories with intricate artwork, as seen below. Others describe alliance and trade bonds, family triumphs, and Odinist prayers. Most Runestones available for viewing today are incredibly faded and difficult to read. Although the original pan-Germanic language has evolved into regional dialects such as Norwegian and today's German, any speaker of Icelandic or even German can understand many Runic writings.
Runestones throughout the world:
Runestones are large stone landmarks and way-signs engraved with Runic inscriptions that date back over 1,500 years. Typically, metal and stone tools were used to carve indentations into the rock face, and paint or dye was smeared into the recesses to leave a lasting imprint. A major problem with evidence is that thousands of Runestones were destroyed for their pagan, non-Christian roots by the Christian authorities of Olaf Tryggvasson of Norway and other proponents of the new faith in Scandinavia. So too, the very wet, damp climate of Scandinavia makes seaside stones with Runic inscriptions prone to moss and fungus growth that quickly erases the Runes. Many Runestones have been discovered by accident near private homes. As a result, evidence important to historians may exist of which we are as yet unaware. We may therefore never know exactly how developed, civilized, and literate German societies were prior to the adoption of Christendom.
Predictably, the history of prolific conquest in the Viking age saw the spread of the Runic alphabet and Runic inscriptions throughout the non-Germanic world. Runestones have been found in France, Ireland, Scotland, the Baltic, and may have even spread to Russia and the Middle East, where Vikings traded with native peoples and probably exchanged “useless” Runic-inscribed artisanry for goods. The vast majority of Runestones outside the Germanic world date from the 7th-10th centuries, precisely the Viking Age that ended with the Christianization of Scandinavia (the last Germanic region to be converted). It is possible that Vikings left Runic inscriptions in Canada, where Vikings were the first modern Europeans to discover the New World (500 years before Columbus). Some monuments in Minnesota and the American Northeast claim to have ancient Runic artifacts, but this is largely assumed to be a farce. Since Germanic settlement in North America was so brief and ephemeral, it is unlikely that Vikings struggling to survive would take the time to write elaborate historical documents on Runestones. However, Iceland, from which the Nordic settlers in America came on their way from Greenland to Canada, were among the most literate of the Germanic peoples in Runic and in Odinic religious tradition. As a result, many Runic relics invaluable to our understanding of ancient Germanic culture is likely lost.
Most Runestones are very simple, and include imagery such as ships, animals, hunting rites, and only a few actual Runes. Most do not actually include any actual message whatsoever in the Runic alphabet. Instead, they include individual Runes intended to honor specific gods (such as Odin or Thor) or to channel the spiritual significance of each Rune (such as protection or reinforcing the king's authority). Some Runestones in Sweden especially have elaborate poetry and stories with intricate artwork, as seen below. Others describe alliance and trade bonds, family triumphs, and Odinist prayers. Most Runestones available for viewing today are incredibly faded and difficult to read. Although the original pan-Germanic language has evolved into regional dialects such as Norwegian and today's German, any speaker of Icelandic or even German can understand many Runic writings.